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SCHOOL BOARD 
MAN UAL 



REVISED EDITION 



WM. GEO. BRUCE 




Eil£ 



Copyright ]s'". 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



School Board Manual 



A reference book on School Administrative 

labors for the use of School 

Authorities 



COMPILED BY 

WILLIAM GEORGE BRUCE 



Second Edition 



PUBLISHED BY 

THE AMERICAN SCHOOL BOARD JOURNAL 

MILWAUKEE, WIS. 



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I Tvvo Oopies fieei)i>ja1 

I DEC 5 i90f 




Copyright, 1907, 
By WM. GEO. BRUCE 



PREFACE 



It is the purpose of this little volume to 
answer in ready reference form questions which 
may arise in school administrative labors and 
to present in compact form the experience and 
accepted conclusions of school boards on vari- 
ous problems, and thereby facilitate the labors 
and increase the efficiency of those having the 
direction of school^aSf airs'. '■ 

School boards are isolated bodies. They do 
not mingle with each other as such. Their pro- 
ceedings are hidden from one another, except 
in rare instances where such proceedings are 
printed in the columns of a newspaper or in 
pamphlet form. But, even here important ac- 
tions are submerged in a mass of routine and 
only intelligible to an outsider after they have 
been disentangled from official verbiage. 

This fact, together with the transitory char- 
acter of the average school board and the ab- 
sorbing occupations of many of its members, 
render helpful literature on school administra- 
tion most necessary. The man who is con- 
stantly preoccupied with business or profes- 
sional labors has little time or inclination to 
wade through a mass of literature in order to 
equip himself adequately for school adminis- 
trative duties. He may rely upon the practical 
sense which has served him in his reaailar busi- 



4 PREFACE 

ness or professional labors only to find that he 
lacks the experience and the ready access to 
precedent so necessary to fruitful deliberations 
and wise conclusions in public affairs. 

During the history of one school system many 
problems are solved and the experience thus 
gained is duly expressed and preserved in fixed 
rules and regulations. In the course of time 
the best thoughts of many minds, covering 
varied conditions and a long period of years 
bearing on wise management, is accumulated. 

But, while the school director may have access 
to the accumulated experience of his predeces- 
sors he still lacks those of other school boards 
in other cities, other towns and villages. In 
many things, the conclusions of several school 
boards may be alike and yet in many others 
they may vary materially, one being sound in 
its policies, the other nearly so, and the third 
absolutely wrong. Again, one school system 
may have solved, at a great cost, a problem 
which still remains to be solved by the other. 
Questions, entirely new to them, constantly 
press themselves upon one set of school boards 
for adjudication which have already been solved 
successfully by another set. 

To convey the experience of one to the aid of 
the other will tend to avoid confusion, vexation 
and unnecessary expense. To act as such con- 
veyor is the mission of this book. 

The material drawn upon has been furnished 
in the rules and regulations adopted by boards 
of education, both large and small, in the vari- 



PREFACE 5 

ous sections of the country. While in most 
instances given in compact form, in others the 
rules are given verbatim. Where they have 
been adopted by several school boards all refer- 
ences, in the interest of brevity, are omitted 
and where the original authorship can be 
determined due credit is given. 

The main purpose of the book would be de- 
feated if the ready reference plan were not 
consistently carried out and emphasized. The 
various subjects are arranged in alphabetical 
order throughout. The subdivisions coming 
under the headings of Pupils, School Boards, 
Teachers, Text-Books, etc., are again made in 
their alphabetical order. 

W. G. B. 



"While the teacher makes the school, 
the superintendent in large part makes 
the teacher, and as the power to ap- 
point both superintendent and teach- 
ers in the vast majority of instances 
lies in the hands of the board of 
education, this body is ultimately the 
strongest factor in making or destroy- 
ing the schools." — Dr. J. M. Eice. 



School Board Manual 



ADMINISTRATION. National. — The ad- 
ministration of onr public schools may, in the 
larger aspect, be viewed as national, state and 
local. The first named is almost negligible 
since the federal government has no control 
over the schools of the nation in any way. The 
functions of the bureau of education are lim- 
ited chiefly to the gathering of statistics and 
the publication of reports. True, the commis- 
sioner has charge of the schools of Alaska and 
of Indian education, but so far as the common 
schools of the various states are concerned, he 
is without power to even recommend with any 
degree of authority. What influence the bureau 
has had upon the schools has been due solely 
to the dissemination of educational literature. 

State. — The public school system does not 
exist as a national system, in a legal sense. It 
is purely the creation of the various states of 
the nation, governed by the respective consti- 
tutions and laws of each commonwealth. In the 
briefest, these laws provide for the maintenance 
of a sufficient number of common schools for all 
children in every district (or township) and 
city ; they authorize the conduct of high schools, 
and universities, and schools for the training of 
teachers; they define the creation of state and 
local administrative authorities; they &l the 



8 STATE ADMINISTRATION 

amount of funds to be raised by taxation and 
their distribution; they provide for the educa- 
tion of children who cannot attend the regular 
schools; they designate the subjects to be 
taught; they compel the attendance of children 
of a certain age, etc. 

The authority to govern the state school sys- 
tems is usually vested in a state board of edu- 
cation whose executive officer is the state super- 
intendent of instruction. Where the board does 
not exist the superintendent performs the duties 
himself. 

The functions of these officials are similar to 
those of other governmental branches. First, 
they are executive, in carrying out the pro- 
visions of the constitution and the laws. To 
fully realize the benefits of these laws, they 
have a legislative function, exercised in making 
regulations to guide institutions directly under 
their control as ' well as the local schools. In 
some states they have a judicial function, that 
disputes between local authorities may be 
]udged without further recourse to the civil 
courts. 

Probably the most important function is, 
however, that of supervision. The public 
schools are state schools and are becoming rec- 
ognized as such more commonly from year to 
year. But, in their immediate administration 
they are, also, local and it is in a general su- 
pervision that the state authorities exercise 
their greatest influence. 

The first duty of a state board of education 



STATE ADMINISTRATION ■ 9 

is to formulate and enforce a course of study 
for the common schools so that the work of 
these schools may be unified, a standard of 
excellence set, and teachers and pupils encour- 
aged to reach that standard. 

The approval of books is properly a function 
of the state school authorities. In some states 
the regular and supplementary texts are 
adopted for uniform use in all the school dis- 
tricts. Generally, good books are simply listed 
and local authorities choose such texts as they 
deem specially fitted for their needs. The ap- 
proval of furniture, apparatus and miscellaneous 
supplies for school use is sometimes under- 
taken. This has a tendency to shut out worth- 
less articles and to save the inexperienced from 
squandering the school funds. 

In supervising the apportionment of school 
moneys to the counties and towns, the state 
authorities have a weapon for enforcing all the 
laws pertaining to the schools. For, nothing is 
more potent than the withdrawal of state sup- 
port of the schools, in bringing to time a re- 
bellious or negligent school board. 

Direct financial aid for school districts who 
are unable to carry out the laws with all the 
taxes at their command has been found to en- 
courage poor districts. Special aid for unusual 
efforts to improve school conditions has been 
an incentive for renewed efforts. 

The education of deaf, dumb, blind and 
feeble-minded children is quite properly a duty 
of the state and the control of institutions for 



10 STATE ADMINISTRATION 

these classes belongs to the state authorities. 
Large cities take care of such of these children 
as live in their borders, but for the rest, the 
state provides. 

The granting of diplomas and certificates to 
graduates of the common and high schools, and, 
also, of normal schools, state colleges, and uni- 
versities, belongs to the state authorities. At 
least, they should fix the standards and see that 
they are complied with. It would be well if 
they controlled even more than they do in 
many states. 

The preparation of teachers is an important 
duty of state school authorities for, upon the 
supply of a high grade teaching corps depends 
the continuance of the schools. The full con- 
trol of normal schools is conceded to belong to 
the state as well as the certification of teachers. 
Local authorities often are entrusted with 
powers to examine and certify teachers, but in 
this work, it must be remembered, they are 
agents of the state. 

The supervision of the sanitary condition of 
school buildings has been found beneficial and 
in some states all plans for schools, for their 
heating, ventilation, etc., must be submitted to 
the state authorities. 

The judicial powers granted to some state au- 
thorities have been found of value for speedily 
disposing of minor differences in the interpre- 
tation of the laws. There is a well-defined 
tendency for enlarging these powers in all 
states. 



CITY ADMINISTRATION 11 

City. — The administrative powers of a city 
school system are primarily vested in school 
boards, whose functions vary largely according 
to the laws which the state has made for their 
guidance. The rapid growth of the city school 
systems, coincident with the marvelous evolu- 
tion of our municipalities, is, in part, cause 
for the great diversity in the methods of ad- 
ministration, in the size and mode of selecting 
school boards, in the powers and duties of the 
superintendents and other officials. The essen- 
tial features are, however, the same in all. 

In a wide sense, the functions of a school 
board are legislative, executive, supervisory and 
judicial, just like those of the state school au- 
thorities. While school boards assume all the 
legislative functions, they, nevertheless^ dele- 
gate most of their executive, supervisory and 
judicial powers to paid officials. The natural 
division of governmental authority demands 
this separation. Even if school board members 
had the time and the technical knowledge, as 
they have not, to perform the duties of the 
superintendent, this separation would remain a 
necessity. 

Each of the four general functions of school 
boards just mentioned is subject to a further 
natural division as it relates to the financial 
and purely business duties or to the technical 
and professional work of the schools. It is 
often difficult to determine under which head a 
given question may properly belong; most de- 
serve consideration from both points of view. 



12 CITY ADMINISTRATION 

As a rule it would seem that the technical con- 
siderations should be first taken up and should 
prevail if the financial and other business con- 
siderations permit. If this be true then the 
superintendent as the professional manager of 
the schools should have the initiative in all 
matters purely technical in character, and 
should be first consulted in everything which 
may only partially lie within his province. 

In the purely business or financial functions 
of the board, no superintendent will wish to 
intrude. Thus, in the arrangement of a course 
of study, the adoption of books, and the selec- 
tion of teachers, the superintendent should have 
the initiative. Some would give him absolute 
power, but a wise arrangement would seem to 
require' that the board reserves the right of 
final approval or disapproval to itself. In those 
duties which are partially professional, such as 
the annual making of a budget, the selection of 
plans for school buildings, purchasing needed 
furniture and apparatus, hiring truant officers, 
etc., the superintendent's advice and counsel 
will be asked, but the details will remain with 
a committee or other officer of the board. Such 
functions of the board as the payment of bills, 
hiring janitors, purchasing fuel, etc., will nat- 
urally be the work of the board and its busi- 
ness agents. In this discussion we are not con- 
sidering the professional duties of the superin- 
tendent as supervisor in directing the teachers, 
promoting pupils, etc. 

Tendencies. — There are a number of charac- 



DISTRICT ADMINISTRATION 13 

teristic tendencies in the administration of city 
schools which deserve mention here. There is 
a prevalent movement to remove the schools 
from the jurisdiction of the local governmental 
bodies, and from politics. The school board is 
being recognized more as a separate, quasi- 
independent body, which is in a sense an agency 
of the state. School boards themselves are dis- 
tinguishing more sharply the line that should 
separate the legislative from the executive func- 
tions and are leaving the latter more generally 
with the superintendents and the business heads 
which they have appointed. 

In the selection of school boards it is more 
and more becoming recognized that the board 
should be a small body, representative of the 
school district (city) at large, elected by the^ 
people, for a term longer than the present av- 
erage. This tendency is only a logical sequence 
to the idea that the powers of the board and 
the principles which underlie all policies of the 
board should be representative of the whole 
community. 

The division of the business and the strictly 
instructional functions is becoming clearer 
from year to year, and the tendency of appoint- 
ing an official at the head of each of these de- 
partments is becoming more common. We have 
had superintendents of instruction for many 
years, but so-called business directors or man- 
agers of the schools have been rare. 

District. — The school district is the simplest 
civil organization which we have. In territory 



14 , TOWN ADMINISTRATION 

it is usually small and it is rarely composed of 
more than half a dozen families. The organ- 
ization and administration of the school is 
simple and the most important business can be 
performed by the citizens in one or several gen- 
eral meetings. The committee which has im- 
mediate direction of the school usually consists 
of a moderator or chairman, who is the head of 
the district, a treasurer who disburses the 
funds, and a clerk who performs the clerical 
work. The only professional supervision that 
district schools receive is that of the county 
superintendent. The district school was the 
progenitor of the American public school 
system. 

Town.^-The growth of rural communities 
has led, in many states, to the abandonment of 
district school government and the adoption of 
the township plan. This has been looked upon 
as an important improvement and with reason, 
for it permits the establishment of a higher 
grade of schools. 

The township is, of course, the territory em- 
braced. The system is more centralized than 
the district plan. The annual town meeting 
usually votes the amount of money to be spent 
for the schools, buys property, and orders the 
erection of buildings and elects a school board. 
The latter usually consists of from three to five 
members and has charge of all of the common 
schools of the township and of the township 
high school, if such an institution exists. In 
accordance with the statutes the school board 



ADVERTISEMENTS 15 

erects buildings and cares for them, purchases 
supplies, furniture and equipment, hires teach- 
ers, janitors and supervising officers — in a word, 
regulates the entire schools. The township sys- 
tem of school government permits some im- 
portant advances in rural school organization, 
among which may be enumerated : the estab- 
lishment of centralized graded schools, better 
and more uniform teaching, township high 
schools, and expert supervision. 

County. — The county is the unit of school 
government in several of the southern states. 
Here the county is the unit for all civil gov- 
ernment and the schools follow the general 
order of things. ISTearly every state which has 
this system has a plan peculiar to itself. 

In most states the county is the unit for 
expert supervision of the country schools. In 
many of the older states counties are divided 
into two or more 'districts, each headed by a 
superintendent. As a rule, however, the county 
is a unit, and to the county is paid the appor- 
tionment of state school funds, etc. 

ADVERTISEMENTS. — No advertisement 
should be read, distributed or given away in 
school, nor should newspapers, books, pub- 
lications or articles of any kind be advertised, 
distributed or exhibited in schools by teachers, 
pupils or other persons, nor should the names 
cf pupils be given to anyone for the purpose of 
circularizing them with advertising matter. 



16 AGENTS 

AGENTS. — Salesmen or other persons should 
not be permitted indiscriminately to visit teach- 
ers or students at the schools for the purpose of 
influencing the purchase, order or use of books 
or supplies, or for the purpose of taking pic- 
tures of the building or pupils. In places where 
the principal has a voice in the purchase of sup- 
plies or the adoption of text-books reasonable 
time should be granted to the agent to present 
the merits of his book or apparatus provided 
these are needed, and an adoption or purchase 
is in contemplation. The privilege should also 
be granted where high school teachers are ex- 
pected to make recommendations on the books 
and appliances required in departmental work. 
(See Bookmen.) 

AGRICULTURE.— The elements of agricul- 
ture as a study for pupils in rural schools have 
been generally introduced and are required by 
law in several states. As now pursued, the 
subject includes an elementary study of soils, 
plants, animals and farm economics. 

Among the chief reasons for introducing ag- 
riculture may be mentioned: (1) The study 
creates an interest in farm work, and instills in 
the farmer lad a love and respect for his future 
occupation. (2) It connects the country school 
Vvuth the life of the community and makes its 
own value and need more apparent. (3) It 
cultivates the creative faculty as separate from 
the receptive and reflective which are given so 



APPARATUS 17 

much opportunity of development in the 
schools. 

More than sixty state normal schools in the 
country give courses fitting their students to 
teach the subject. 

APPARATUS. Definition.— The courts have 
decided that school apparatus implies such ar- 
ticles as globes, maps, charts, etc. The word 
"apparatus," it is held, cannot be strained to 
cover school furniture. 

Condition. — Rules should be formulated and 
displayed in every schoolhouse regarding the 
care and use of apparatus, and the fine to be 
exacted in case of the wilful destruction of the 
same. The school board should examine or else 
the superintendent, principal or teacher should 
be requested to report at least once a year on 
the general condition of all apparatus. 

Inventory. — Before the close of each school 
year, during the months of May or June, a 
complete inventory of all apparatus and where 
located should be made and submitted to the 
board. This inventory should include a state- 
ment, A) of the condition of the apparatus, 
B) of articles in need of repair, C) of articles 
to be replaced, D) of new articles required. 

Needs. — The superintendent or secretary 
should submit during the vacation months, 
early in July or August, a full list of the new 
apparatus desired and required. He should 
specify the kind and number of articles, to- 
gether with the probable cost* 



18 ART EDUCATION 

How Ordered. — The names of firms that man- 
iifacture or deal in school apparatus may be 
readily ascertained by consulting the advertis- 
ing columns of any first class educational jour- 
nal. The firms found here are usually reliable 
both as to the quality of the goods and the 
prices exacted. Orders ought not to be de- 
layed until the latter part of August if a 
prompt delivery of the goods is desired. 

ARBOR DAY. — The movement to encourage 
tree planting by public school children found 
its inception in the western plains. The ab- 
sence of woodlands and the exposure of lone 
schoolhouses to the ^ elements prompted the 
thought. The day was first observed in Ne- 
braska and legalized by that state in 1872. In 
most states the day is observed (see .^^Holidays/^ 
page 38) with appropriate exercises. These 
consist of recitations, songs and drills by the 
children and an address by some public per- 
sonage. 

ART EDUCATION. Art instruction has for 
many years formed a part of the public school 
curriculum and there are but few who do not 
recognize its aesthetic and in no less degree 
practical value. Drawing by means of pencil, 
crayon and pen (and water color work) have 
been the chief means of art instruction. The 
decoration of schoolrooms with tasteful wall 
coloring and reproductions of masterpieces of 
painting and sculpture has also been an indi- 



ATHLETICS 19 

rect but most effective means of teaching art 
to children. 

Aims. The immediate aim of art instruction 
is to give pupils facility and power in the use 
of pen, pencil or other instrument, together 
with some idea of the fundamental principles 
of line, form and color. The more remote, but 
just as important, object is to give pupils true 
standards of taste for appreciating beauty and 
judging true art. 

Besides the cultural value, art instruction is 
of practical use. While the pupil is acquiring 
ability to draw or paint pictures he is uncon- 
sciously developing his powers of imagination, 
observation and concentration of mind. Then, 
too, his eye is being trained to accurately meas- 
ure distances, and to desire neat, perfect work 
and to abhor defective, untidy work. His 
muscles are being trained so that he will be 
able to write better, etc. 

ATHLETICS.— The athletics with which 
school boards are likely to be called upon to 
deal with are confined almost wholly to the 
high schools. Every high school in the country 
has its athletics. While these are usually di- 
rected by the faculty under the sanction of the 
board they are governed frequently by rules 
fixed wholly by the administrative heads. Some 
school boards strictly forbid football and other 
athletic sports. Where such rules exist they 
have been adopted as a result of some serious 
accidents or upon the request of the patrons of 



20 BACKWARD CHILDREN 

the schools. In a number of high schools where 
athletics are forbidden they are conducted off 
the school grounds and outside of the jurisdic- 
tion of the authorities. 

Rules. — Where school boards sanction ath- 
letics the following rules usually prevail: 

All athletics conducted in the name of the 
high school, are subject to the supervision of 
the advisory committee, consisting of the prin- 
cipal and his assistants. This committee has 
the power to veto any action or conduct that 
seems to it detrimental to the work of the 
school or injurious to its good name. 

No high school student shall enter athletic 
contests unless he has the required standing 
(from 75% to 85%) in at least four studies. 

Pupils may belong to athletic organizations 
if they present written consent of parent or 
guardian. 

!N'o team is allowed to play any match game 
with any other school located outside of the 
city unless accompanied by a member of the 
faculty. (See Gymnastics.) 

BACKWARD CHILDREN.— By backward 
children are meant such as are physically or 
mentally defective in a slight degree or very 
nervous children, who from a variety of causes 
cannot keep up with normal children in school 
work. These children are not defective enough 
to belong in institutions, but will always re- 
quire and respond to special teaching. They 
are capable of progress in special day classes 



BIBLE READINGS 21 

to make them self-sustaining and independent 
in after life. 

BATHS. — In larger cities where the slum 
districts send unclean and unkempt children to 
the schools the authorities have provided baths. 
The janitor or a male attendant is placed in 
charge of the boys, who are cleansed and even 
clothed so as to be presentable in the class- 
room, while a female attendant looks after the 
girls. Wherever the baths have been introduced 
they have been found to wield a marvelous in- 
fluence upon the children coming from the 
districts named, and upon the general moral 
tone of the entire school. 

BIBLE READINGS.— No book which has 
ever been adopted, or rejected, for ^ schoolroom 
use by school boards, has aroused more contro- 
versy than the Bible. The followers of one re- 
ligion oppose a certain version while those of 
another do not believe in the New Testament. 
Finally, there are those who believe that re- 
ligious instruction of any kind should not be 
tolerated in the schools. 

Selections from the Bible are read in many 
schools, notably in rural districts, at the open- 
ing of the morning session. The Lord's Prayer 
is also read in a number of schools. In most 
schools, however, all religious exercises are 
omitted. 

At Chicago, some few years ago, a concerted 
movement was made on the part of several of 



22 BIBLE READINGS 

the Protestant denominations together with the 
Catholics and Jews to introduce Bible readings 
in the schools. A text-book consisting of Bible 
selections made by the representatives of the 
various religious organizations was adopted, but 
its introduction in the schools was defeated in 
the courts by the free thinking element. The 
work suffered a similar fate in the cities of 
Detroit and Grand Rapids, Mich. 

Literary. — The strongest defense of the Bible 
in public schools is made by Thomas H. Huxley 
when he says : 

^^Take the Bible as a whole, make the severest 
deductions which fair criticism can dictate for 
shortcomings and positive errors, eliminate, as 
a sensible lay teacher would do, if left to him- 
self, all that is not desirable for children to 
occupy themselves with; and there still remains 
in this old literature a vast residuum of moral 
beauty and grandeur. And then consider the 
great historical fact that, for three centuries 
this book has been woven into the life of all 
that is best and noblest in English history. I 
am in favor of reading the Bible, with such 
grammatical, geographical and historical ex- 
planations by a lay teacher as may be needful 
with rigid exclusion of any further theological 
teaching than that contained in the Bible itself. 
And in stating what this is, the teacher would 
do well not to go beyond the precise words of 
the Bible/' 

Legal. — The decision of the Supreme Court 
of Wisconsin forbidding the use of the Bible 



BOARDS OF EDUCATION 23 

in public schools of that state has been recog- 
nized by most states as fixing the legal status 
of the question. 

BOARDS OF EDUCATION. Associations. 
— (See also Conventions.) A unification of 
boards of education can accomplish two specific 
objects. First, promote their efficiency in con- 
ducting the more strictly practical and business 
branches of their work. Second, bring the 
school boards into closer relation with the the- 
oretical work of a school system, and, conse- 
quently, nearer the teaching force and the more 
vital and far reaching interests of the school. 

The members of the board of education every- 
where have hitherto remained in isolated groups, 
and have sunken into an unconscious egotism, 
believing that the building of schoolhouses, em- 
ployment of teachers, adoption of books, and 
purchase of supplies are simply transactions, 
requiring no further thought or discussion be- 
yond pacifying a local community. The aver- 
age school board member believes that his school 
system is "all right'^ when matters between the 
board, teachers, and the public, are harmonious. 
Standards of excellence involved by compari- 
sons are almost unknown to him. Progress has, 
as a rule, been made by the professional portion 
of a school system at the risk of opposition and 
defeat. Many school boards have, it may be 
said, obstructed rather than promoted the pro- 
fessional or theoretical work. 

The value of county, state and national asso- 



24 AUTHORITY OF BOARDS 

ciations cannot be over-estimated. They not 
only become a powerful factor in promoting 
desirable ends in the cause of education, but 
tend to strengthen the individual member for 
the duties assigned to him. 

County and state associations of school boards 
are not new, although it was not until within 
recent years that they have assumed any propor- 
tions. In the states of Pennsylvania, Wiscon- 
sin, Minnesota, Michigan, South Dakota, etc., 
the county school directors' association meet- 
ings are, in accordance with the law, called 
annually by the superintendent, and the ex- 
pense borne by the several school districts. In 
many other states such meetings are called, al- 
though not provided for by law. 

The state association of school boards such 
as are found in Connecticut, Colorado, Minne- 
sota, Michigan, New Jersey, Ohio, Pennsyl- 
vania, Indiana, Texas and other states are quite 
strong and have accomplished much in the way 
of progressive school legislation. 

Authority. — The question as to where the 
authority of the school board begins and where 
it ends has frequently assumed a serious phase 
and has been left to the courts for decision. 
This question has usually hinged upon the 
rights of the pupil on or off school grounds. 
The contention, for many years, has been that 
the board's authority or that of its recognized 
agents, ended with the limits of the school 
grounds. A decision rendered by the Supreme 
Court of Michigan holds that the authority of 



BI-PARTISAN BOARDS 25 

the board goes beyond the school grounds when- 
ever the good discipline of the school is in- 
volved. If, for instance, a pupil is found in 
the neighborhood of the school at an unseason- 
able hour or engaged in mischief the teacher 
has a right to send him home. The contention 
here is that while the parent must send the 
pupil to school the teacher must send him home. 

Bi-Partisan. — School boards made up of an 
equal number of the two leading political par- 
ties have not always worked well. Where the 
preliminaries to an election have been in the 
hands of the regular political organizations the 
tendency has been to carry the bi-partisan idea 
to extremes, in that equal division of recogni- 
tion and honors were sought regardless of the 
qualifications of persons. Stagnation and dead 
locks have frequently been the result. The ten- 
dency is to inject rather than to exclude par- 
tisan politics. In many instances, however, bi- 
partisan boards have been the outcome of non- 
partisan movements in the community. In in- 
stances of this kind the results have been more 
favorable. 

Character. — The average board is made up of 
three classes of men, the earnest, progressive 
and duty-loving citizen; the selfish, vindictive 
individual, and the indifferent man. The first 
supports the education leader of the system in 
very laudable departure; the second annoys and 
obstructs ; the third is the balance of power, and 
is liable to be led into one or the other camp. 
The modern board of education is made up of a 



26 SUB-COMMITTEES 

body of business and professional men, who give 
their time and effect without compensation. 
Were it not for the satisfaction of complying 
with one of the most sacred duties of Ameri- 
can citizenship, the position of school board 
member would indeed be a most thankless one. 

"The kind of men wanted on school boards," 
says an educator, "are such as are strong, of 
known character and ability. It matters little 
whether they possess a college diploma or a 
mere common school education and horse sense; 
it makes no difference to what political organ- 
ization they belong, so long as they are wise 
enough not to carry their politics into the 
board of education rooms. 

"But it is of importance that the men se- 
lected to administrate the public school system 
should be broad-gauged— men who are bossed 
by no clique, no corporation, no party, and no 
denomination. It is of importance that they 
should be men of established reputation, that 
the people may trust them and receive their 
decisions with confidence." 

Committees. — The number, membership, du- 
ties and powers of school board committees 
vary from the simplest, where there are two 
committees to a dozen with membership of two 
to six; from the simplest to the most complex 
duties; and, with no powers except recommend- 
ation to full power to act in the most impor- 
tant affairs. 

It is not practical to offer a fixed plan for 
the organization of committees. Every board 



COMPENSATION OF MEMBERS 27 

makes its own division of labors. A reduction 
of all the administrative labors into simplest 
divisions will result in three committees— an 
educational or school management committee, 
a building committee, and a financial commit- 
tee. 

The duties of each of three such committees 
are in larger school boards usually subdivided 
so as to give each member an equal amount of 
work. Thus, the educational committee may 
be subdivided into committees on text-books 
and course of study, teachers and examina- 
tions, apparatus and supplies, rules, etc. The 
duties of the building committee may be appor- 
tioned to committees on new buildings and 
sites, janitors, heating and ventilating, furni- 
ture, etc. The committee on finance may be 
split into committees on appropriations, audit 
and salaries. Local exigencies, however, may 
make it practical to make a different assign- 
ment of labors. 

All committees to whom any matter has been 
referred should report thereon at the first meet- 
ing after such reference, unless further time 
be allowed by the board. At the time of mak- 
ing their report, they should return any com- 
munication, memorial, account, resolution or 
other paper relating to the subject referred to 
them, that it may be filed by the secretary. 

Compensation. — There are but few school 
boards where the members receive any compen- 
sation and then only in nominal sums. Mem- 
phis, Tenn., for instance, pays the president 



28 DEADLOCKS 

$300 per year, and the members $100 per year. 
But the office of school director is generally 
regarded throughout the United States as an 
honorary one without any compensation save 
the consciousness of having served the state in 
an important capacity. 

Deadlocks. — While these tangles demonstrate 
zeal and tenacity on the part of the individual 
school members,, they are most unfortunate, 
nevertheless. They must necessarily prove a 
hindrance to the successful prosecution of 
school administrative work, and give rise to 
scandal and public distrust, and at the same 
time undermine the best discipline of the en- 
tire school system. 

Democracy. — In order that the spirit of 
democracy may pervade the entire school sys- 
tem — that there may be no discrimination be- 
tween rich and poor, between Jew and Gentile — 
the school board must practice the equality 
idea. It must permit no favoritism of any 
kind, either on economical, political, religious 
or racial grounds. 

Discipline. — The duties of school board com- 
mittees on discipline consist mainly in inves- 
tigating charges that are made by parents 
against principals and teachers, on account of 
excessive punishment of pupils, or any griev- 
ance that cannot be settled by the superintend- 
ent, and the investigation of the claims against 
the employes of the board who do not pay their 
legitimate debts. 



FUNDAMENTALS OF ORGANIZATION 29 

Duties. — The state superinteiident of Iowa, in 
a communicatioii to school directors, says: "In 
your election as members of the board you have 
been highly honored. You are also charged 
with great responsibility. To direct the schools 
with success is the most important work in any 
community. Upon you depends, in a large 
measure, the moral tone and the intellectual 
standard to which they attain. The proper care 
of grounds and buildings, the economical ex- 
penditure of school funds and the employment of 
good teachers are duties that challenge your 
best executive ability. 

Executive Sessions. — Secret or executive 
school board meetings are not countenanced in 
any community for any great length of time. 
Sooner or later the public will denounce them. 
The exclusion of newspaper reporters from the 
meetings is usually the beginning of trouble. 
Here the reporter must be considered as the 
representative of the public and as such has a 
right to seek admission. 

Executive sessions are permissible, and even 
necessary, when delicate matters involving the 
morality of pupils or teachers is involved. 

Fundamentals.— Dr. W. H. Burnham of Clark 
University lays down the following "funda- 
mental principles of school organization:" 

1st — Any system of school administration 
should be economical. 

2d — It should be free from party politics. 
3d — ^It should be of such a character as ,to 



30 NON-PARTISAN BOARDS 

stimulate and not to check the local interest 
and responsibility in education. 

4th — It should be free from artificial limita- 
tions such as distinctions of sex or race or elec- 
tion by wards. 

5th — To be efficient, must be adapted to the 
community where it exists. 

6th — It should be, as far as possible, inde- 
pendent of the municipal government, having 
full power and responsibility of its own. 

Yth — Other things being equal, the work of 
the school boards will be more efficient the 
smaller the membership. 

8th — The executive officers should be experts. 

9th — So far as practicable, civil service prin- 
ciples should prevail. 

10th — There should be concentration of power 
and responsibility. 

Non-Partisan. — The non-partisan election 
plan has been held to be ideal, bringing, as it 
does and should, the school system nearer the 
people, whose pride it is, and who maintain it, 
and freeing the school board presumably from 
partisan influences. But even this plan has 
demonstrated certain defects, and cannot be 
considered ideal, unless voters give full and dis- 
criminating expression as to their choice. Ap- 
pointments made on the non-partisan basis 
have also proven most satisfactory. 

Order of Business.— While it is impossible to" 
outline an order of business applicable to all 
school boards, the following may be suggestive : 



PRESIDENTS 31 

1. Roll call and reading of the minutes of pre- 
ceding meeting. 2. Reports and suggestions of 

(a) the superintendent, to include the reports of 
the assistant superintendents, supervisors, etc., 

(b) business manager or secretary, (c) auditor, 
(d) architect and superintendent of buildings. 
3. Reports and suggestions of standing com- 
mittees, in proper order, and of special com- 
mittees. 4. Miscellaneous communications. 
5. Unfinished business. 6. New business. 
Adjournment. 

Partisan. — Partisanship works both ways. If 
the one party urges a good method, a new and 
needed departure, the other is opposed to it on 
purely partisan grounds. Thus in the strife 
for party prestige the interests of the child are 
apt to be overlooked. Clean, high-minded 
men — politicians in the better sense — may be 
elected to school board honors— but in the dis- 
charge of their duties party politics should and 
must be left out. 

Presidents. — The least important duty of a 
school board president, in effect, is to preside 
over the meetings. The law and the rules of 
the board determine his other duties. His first 
task is the appointment of committees. In 
most communities he is required to sign all 
notes, orders, notices, agreements and leases 
ordered by the board. He is empowered to call 
special meetings and to dismiss the schools in 
cases of emergency. 

A newly elected school board president 



32 QUALIFICATIONS OF MEMBERS 

should, as far as may be possible, familiarize 
himself with the school system, under his charge. 
Tacts and figures, as well as the peculiar con- 
ditions which surround the system, either finan- 
cial, educational or moral, should be at his 
command. He should give both superintend- 
ent and teachers the heartiest co-operation and 
kindliest encouragement. 

Every school board president should observe 
his school system so closely that, at the end of 
his term, he can not only review the work of 
his board, but also stand in a position to make 
definite recommendations for the future. The 
€^xperience of the past always suggests action 
for the future and no president has complied 
with his full duty until he transmits to his 
successors in tangible form the benefit of his 
observations and the suggestions for future 
progress which have grown out of it. 

!No. president should close his term without 
submitting a review of the labors of his board, 
the designation of conditions requiring relief, 
difficulties still unsurmounted, new problems 
or their anticipations, etc. One administra- 
tion must be closely linked to the successive 
one. Abrupt changes are harmful. Where 
the spirit of progress pervades a board of educa- 
tion its interest in the school system must ex- 
tend beyond the term of office. 

Qualifications. — An Indiana school man very 
aptly says : "The men who are being chosen in 
our day to membership on school boards are 
usually competent to discover merits and de- 



QUALIFICATIONS OF MEMBERS 33 

merits in all phases of institutional life. In 
their contact with them, they hecome keen 
judges of character and detectives of fraud. 
The tendency to select honest and capable 
school trustees is becoming general. Many 
boards are composed of men who have formed 
a wide acquaintance with people and affairs, 
and who have passed through many varied ex- 
periences in their own school life and in the 
rearing of children. Such men, in the selec- 
tion of teachers, can be of great assistance to 
the superintendent in obtaining for children 
the best possible service." 

Another educator says : "Without wide- 
awake, interested school officers, our schools 
can not make much progress. We are glad 
that we have so many officers who are truly in- 
terested in the welfare of the schools. We want 
school officers who uphold the teacher in all 
reasonable rules and regulations even if the 
penalty fall on the heads of their own chil- 
dren. We want school officers who will encour- 
age the school teachers in professional reading 
and in attendance at teachers' meetings and in- 
stitutes. Yes, officers who will insist on these 
things rather than oppose them. We want of- 
ficers who will themselves read educational 
journals and keep in touch with the newest and 
best methods in education, and who will attend 
educational meetings called by their superin- 
tendents. At least we want school officers who 
will visit their own schools and thus know for 
a certainty ivhether the school is a success or 

3 



34 SCHOOL SCANDALS 

a failure; and we want officers who will co- 
operate with the superintendent on school mat- 
ters.'' 

Scandals. — The attitude which school boards 
have taken in scandals involving the moral 
conduct of schoolroom workers has not always 
been wisely taken. The baleful influences of 
scandals frequently spread like a prairie fire, 
and more especially so when originated in 
school circles, which ought to be above re- 
proach. 

Public investigations here are public calami- 
ties. School boards merely spread a demoraliz- 
ing influence by giving publicity to the nature 
of the charges. 

In the entire range of school administra- 
tion there is no instance where summary and 
arbitrary action is as permissible and as nec- 
essary as it is on questions involving the moral 
standard of the school forces. 

Investigations, if held at all, should be imme- 
diate, quiet and decisive. More frequently pri- 
vate inquiry will sufficiently establish the facts 
and enable the authorities to act. If guilt ex- 
ists beyond reasonable doubt, the person in- 
volved should be requested to resign and 
should be dismissed peremptorily in case of re- 
fusal to resign. 

Secretary. — The secretary or clerk of a school 
board is in most localities the business man- 
ager of the schools, just as the superintendent 
is the educational manager. His first duty is 
to send notices of meetings and keep a record 



METHODS OF SELECTION 35 

of all proceedings of the board and its commit- 
tees. As a rule, he is also the custodian of all 
the records and papers of the schools, and acts 
as accountant and auditor. In smaller towns 
he is also purchasing agent. 

Selection. — The principal systems of select- 
ing school boards now in vogue throughout the 
United States may be enumerated as follows : 

1. Selection by a popular vote at a school 
election or at the regular political elections. 

2. Appointment by the mayor and confirma- 
tion by the board of aldermen or city coun- 
cil. 

3. Appointment by the aldermen and con- 
firmation by the board of aldermen or city 
council. 

4. A dual system — by which a certain num- 
ber are elected by the people direct and the 
balance appointed upon one or the other of 
the two methods already named. 

5. A dual system of representation — by 
vhich a certain number represent the district 
or wards in which they reside, while certain 
members are selected to represent the commu- 
nity at large. 

6. A system by which the members are se- 
lected by a commission consisting of judges of 
the local courts. 

Tenure. — The term of a school director ranges 
from one to six years. The average tenure or 
single term of service is three years. The pre- 
vailing tendency is toward longer terms. 



36 WOMEN AS MEMBERS 

Visiting. — The practice which prevails in 
many school districts by which school directors 
visit the schools has a two-fold advantage. The 
visiting director is familiarized with the sani- 
tary and utilitarian conditions of the building 
and can more readily appreciate needed repairs 
and improvements. His visits may also prove 
valuable in that his presence may become an 
encouragement and stimulus to both teachers 
and pupils. While he may not be in a posi- 
tion to add to the theoretical labors of the 
school his observations from the practical side 
may be of service. In JSTorth Dakota and other 
states the school law requires that each mem- 
ber of a school board shall visit the schools 
under its control at least twice a year, and the 
board shall provide that each of such schools 
shall be visited by a committee of three or more 
of its members at least during each term. 

In many other localities, in the absence of 
specific laws on the subject, members of the 
school board are supposed to devote themselves 
to the general interests of the schools, and 
visit the same as often as practicable. They 
must attend all public exercises of the schools 
and do all in their power to acquaint them- 
selves with the conduct and discipline of the 
schools, and to promote their efficiency. 

Women. — Women are eligible to membership 
on school boards in thirty states, and in twenty 
of these women are now serving on boards. On 
the subject of women on school boards, E. A. 
Winship says: "Women as a rule are more 



BOOK COVERS 37 

constant in attendance, more likely to interest 
themselves on the professional side, less given 
to petty schemes, and it is easier to obtain 
first-class women than men. Only the first-class 
woman can be elected, while a fourth-class man 
may be." 

On the other hand it can hardly be said that 
women have been more, or even quite as suc- 
cessful as men. Their entrance into school ad- 
ministrative bodies has been due to certain 
waves in social circles, effected with great en- 
ergy and enthusiasm only to be followed in a 
year with an utter indifference and collapse. 
In deliberation and debate they have not ex- 
hibited the same calm safety, equipoise and 
judgment displayed by the average man. They 
have been inclined to be irritable in dealing 
with administrative matters, meddlesome in 
dealing with the teachers and impolitic in deal- 
ing with the public. Women teachers, as a 
rule, object to women school officials. Women 
as school officials excel, however, in looking 
after the cleanliness and sanitation of the 
schools. 

BOOK COVERS. — To place school books in 
detachable paper binding has long been rec- 
ognized as being strictly in the interest of 
economy and sanitation. The inventive genius 
has devised book covers which are made of pa- 
per most durable in quality and in form so 
convenient as to permit their ready adjustment 
to the books. The surface of the covers is 



38 BOOKMEN 

smooth and does not permit the lodgment of 
germs or filth. The use of book covers materi- 
ally prolongs the life of a school book. In 
districts where the free text-book system pre- 
vails the covers are used in large quantities by 
school boards and are regarded as indispen- 
sable. 

BOOKMEN. Their Mission.— The agents of 
educational publishing houses are both loved 
and despised. They are usually popular among 
the school people because of their geniality, 
helpfulness, scholarship and judgment. They 
are disliked on the other hand, by impatient 
school officials who do not fully understand or 
appreciate their mission. 

The bookman is employed to promote the sale 
of his employer's goods. In order to accom- 
plish what his house pays him for, he must ex- 
ploit the merits of these goods, and by argu- 
ment and pursuasion effect their sale. This is 
legitimate. No merchant would ask or expect 
less of his salesmen. 

Relation to Officials. — Anyone having an ar- 
ticle to sell which is likely to be needed by the 
school system is entitled to attention. The 
school official is by virtue of his office, in duty 
bound to grant a respectful hearing if his 
school system is in the market for goods. If 
he contemplated a purchase for his own use 
he would most certainly take some time to ex- 
amine the goods, ascertain prices, etc. As the 
representative of the school system, he must be 



SCHOOL BUDGETS 39 

equally ready to investigate. The merits of a 
book can not always be fully exploited in a 
ten-minute talk before a committee. A per- 
sonal audience, while not absolutely necessary, 
is much more satisfactory, as it will elicit more 
information regarding the relative merits or 
demerits of books than could possibly be se- 
cured at a formal committee meeting. It is 
not, however, to be implied that the school board 
member should commit himself for or against 
a given book which is shown him by the agent. 
Discretion must be used in this matter as in 
all other official acts. 

Bookmen have their distinctive uses, and if 
we eliminate the few instances where they give 
annoyance, we will find them companionable, 
serviceable and educational servants of a de- 
sirable type. While the modern text -book is a 
reflex of the best educational thought — the 
bookman is the medium that carries the thought 
into action. In the best sense he is the advance 
agent of educational progress. 

BUDGET. — In school systems where a 
timely anticipation of future needs actuates 
the school board and where the city council de- 
mands it, an annual budget is prepared from 
six months to one year in advance. The sums 
of money to be used during a school year are 
apportioned into the several items, including 
salaries, supplies, buildings, maintenance, sink- 
ing fund, fuel, etc. 



40 RURAL CENTRALIZATION 

CENTRALIZATION OF RURAL 
SCHOOLS. Consolidation or centralization is 
the union of two or more rural, district or 
township schools, not necessarily all, to estab- 
lish one large, complete educational center. 
As is evident, transportation becomes an im- 
portant factor in this consideration. The pu- 
pils are conveyed to and from the school^ at 
public expense by a driver who is vested with 
powers of a teacher. The cost exceeds not more 
than $1.25 to $1.75 per month per pupil. Wher- 
ever the plan has been tried it has met with 
popular approval by about 85 to 90 per cent. 

California, Connecticut, Florida, Illinois, 
Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Maine, Massachusetts, 
Michigan, Minnesota, Nebraska, New Hamp- 
shire, New Jersey, New York, North Dakota, 
Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, 
South Dakota, Vermont and Wisconsin are 
now enjoying the advantages of consolidation 
and transportation. 

The arguments advanced for centralized rural 
schools are : 

1. The entire system becomes more regu- 
larly organized with the advantage of the city 
schools. 

2. Classes become larger, including many 
pupils not reached under the compulsory edu- 
cation laws. 

3. Closer relationship, more varied inter- 
course and friendly class rivalry tend to stim- 
ulate interest. Thus classes become stronger. 



RURAL CENTRALIZATION 41 

pupils continue residence in school, finally seek- 
ing higher education. 

4. Pupils are better graded and classified, 
thus assuring more rapid progress. 

5. School year is lengthened beyond four or 
five months, high school privileges are placed 
within easy grasp. 

6. Teachers are of a higher standard pro- 
fessionally and demand higher salaries. 

7. While the first cost of erecting a central- 
ized school seems rather large, the subsequent 
expense for maintenance is much less than 
that for individual buildings. 

8. Better school houses result. They are 
correctly heated, ventilated, lighted, equipped 
with more sanitary improvements ; apparatus 
is more perfect. 

9. Supervision of schools can be accomplished 
more thoroughly. 

10. Tardiness and irregular attendance re- 
duced to a minimum. 

11. No wet feet, wet clothing or colds result- 
ing therefrom. 

12. No quarreling, improper language or im- 
proper conduct to or from school. 

13. Pupils are under the care of responsible 
persons from the time they leave home in the 
morning until they return at night. 

14. Special studies, such as agriculture, can 
be pursued systematically and experimentally 
with most favorable results to the entire com- 
munity. 



42 SCHOOL CENSUS 

15. The selection of better and abler school 
boards is made possible in the larger districts. 

16. Nepotism is eliminated. 

17. Libraries, lyceums, athletic contests, etc., 
remove all desire for the city. 

The opponents of the plan argue against it 
on the ground of expense, weather disadvan- 
tages, distances, cold lunches, lack of exercise, 
unfit roads, and an awakened desire for city 
life. 

Educators, generally, believe that the ad- 
vantages greatly outweigh the disadvantages 
and give the movement almost universal favor. 

CENSUS. — The annual school census has 
three objects. The first, of course, is to ascer- 
tain accurately how many children are of legal 
school age and to determine how many attend 
school, what schools they attend, etc. In many 
localities a second object is to provide figures 
for the distribution of state school funds. A 
third, and very important object of the census, 
has been to afford the truant officers correct 
data for locating children who are not attend- 
ing school. 

CITY COUNCILS.— It is a well known fact 
that wherever a city council is given authority 
over a school board serious clashes follow 
sooner or later. These tilts would be of little 
consequence, except to furnish attractive news 
matter for the press, were it not for the fact 
that they are invariably followed by detrimental 



CLASS ROOMS 43 

results to the educational interests of the com- 
munity. Harassing tactics are employed to 
reduce appropriations, to govern taxation, to 
determine the location of new school buildings 
or delay the repair of old ones, etc. 

And woe to the school board that is the direct 
creature of a city council! Here the alder- 
man, who feels his power in making or un- 
making a school board member, rules with an 
iron hand. His influence does not end with the 
selection of a school site, or the employment 
of a janitor, but he attempts to determine the 
list of professional workers as well. 

In a combat between the city council and a 
school board, the former usually displays 
greater skill in the way of political intrigue 
and manipulation. The unscrupulous poli- 
tician is much more apt to find his way to a 
seat in a city council chamber than in a school 
board. The latter is usually composed of a 
higher type of citizenship and consequently 
given to cleaner methods. If the school board, 
that derives its powers from a city council, 
does not do the bidding of its creator, trouble 
will surely follow. 

CLASS ROOMS. — The classroom is the unit 
in school architecture just as the class is the 
imit for teaching purposes. Three standard 
sizes have been accepted for primary and gram- 
mar grade rooms : First, 22x32 feet for 40 pu- 
pils; second, 24x32 feet for 48 pupils; third, 
28x32 feet for 56 pupils. Ceilings should never 



44 CLOSING SCHOOLS ^ 

be less than 12 feet, nor more than 14 feet high. 
The floor space should equal 15 square feet per 
pupil and the air space not less than 200 cubic 
feet. 

Light should come to the pupil over the left 
shoulder. Windows should be square topped 
and extend close to the ceiling. Glass area 
should equal one-fifth of the floor space. 

Thirty cubic feet of fresh air per minute per 
pupil is estimated to be the correct amount. The 
heating system should keep the temperature at 
70 degrees Fahrenheit; 70 per cent of mois- 
ture is the correct humidity. 

The floor should be of hard maple or Georgia 
pine, well seasoned and properly deadened. The 
walls should be plastered and tinted in light 
olive green, blue-gray or cream color. The 
ceilings should be white. 

The doors should be wide and open outward. 

The desks should be single, preferably ad- 
justable, properly varnished and durable. The 
rows should run the long way of the room.' 

Blackboards should be made of natural slate 
or some recognized brand of artificial black- 
boarding. In the primary grades they should 
be placed 26 inches above the floor; in inter- 
mediate grades, 30 inches; in grammar grades, 
36 inches. 

A teachers' closet and a bookcase should be 
in every classroom. 

CLOSING SCHOOLS.— The civil authori- 
ties of the city or state by virtue of their po- 



CO-EDUCATION 45 

lice powers have the right to close the schools 
in time of trouble, riot, strikes, etc. Boards 
of health, whether state or local, have the right 
to close the schools in times of epidemics. 

Principals and superintendents usually have 
the authority to close a single building when 
the same is unfit for school purposes on account 
of a fire, inefficiency of the heating apparatus, 
etc. 

In many localities it requires a three-fourths 
vote in the affirmative of the entire member- 
ship of the board of education to suspend a 
session of the public schools, except on legal 
holidays. It also requires the consent of three- 
fourths of the members present at any regular 
or special meeting to consider a proposition to 
adjourn the schools. 

CO-EDUCATION. — Separate schools for 
children in the grades are to be found in sev- 
eral of our largest cities (New York, Boston, 
Baltimore, Philadelphia). C. B. Gilbert voices 
the opinion of educators in general when he 
writes: ^^The bringing together of boys and 
girls into the same classrooms and recitation 
rooms is according to the laws of nature and 
society. The separation of boys and girls in 
the elementary education, if it has any basis 
at all, is based upon a totally false conception 
of human relation and moral culture." Sepa- 
rate high schools and high schools in which 
sexes are segregated are more common. 



46 COMPULSORY EDUCATION 

COMPULSORY EDUCATION.— Since the 

welfare of a self-governing country depends 
upon the intelligence of its citizens, measures to 
insure the growth of intelligence in the rising 
generation are necessary. Compulsory school 
attendance has been provided in Massachusetts 
and Connecticut since the middle of the seven- 
teenth century and nearly every state has more 
or less effective laws at the present time. These 
require attendance from three to seven months, 
between the ages of seven and fourteen, or six- 
teen. A penalty of fine or imprisonment is pro- 
vided for disobedience. (See Truant Officer, 
etc.) 

CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. — Children af- 
flicted with contagious or infectious diseases 
are excluded from attendance at school. The 
common diseases coming under this head are: 
Measles, mumps, chicken pox, whooping cough, 
scarlet fever, diphtheria, smallpox and tubercu- 
losis. Members of families where measles, 
smallpox, diphtheria or scarlet fever occur are 
also excluded. A certificate of the health offi- 
cials or some reputable physician is usually re- 
quired before such children are re-admitted. 

CONTRIBUTIONS.— There is a tendency to 
make the school a sort of clearing house for 
charitable or patriotic movements. The col- 
lection of moneys from the pupils, although 
the sums are usually quite small, is dis- 
countenanced by many school boards. 

There are several valid objections. The poor 



EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS 47 

child whose parents can not contribute is placed 
at a disadvantage with the child whose parents 
can and do contribute liberally. The spirit of 
democracy which should pervade every school 
is here disturbed. 

Again, the collection of money from pupils 
interferes, if only slightly, with the regular la- 
bors of the classroom. 

CONVENTIONS. — School board members 
should be particularly interested in all sorts of 
educational gatherings. On the one hand 
moral support should aid in the prosperity of 
the movements. On the other, active partici- 
pation in programs and sessions should lend 
life, existence and reality to their v progress. 

Several kinds of meetings should be either 
attended in person or encouraged by acts of 
favor. First there is the local or county 
teachers' institute; next the state teachers' as- 
sociation, and finally the annual meeting of 
the National Education Association. While 
it is impossible and impracticable for the mem- 
bers of a board of education to attend these 
meetings, interest has been stimulated in them 
by the payment of salaries to teachers during 
the time of attendance. 

Every board of education should send its 
superintendent at the expense of the commu- 
nity to the winter meeting of the Department 
of Superintendence of the iNTational Educa- 
tion Association. The majority of the large 
cities in the country defray all the expenses of 
the superintendent. 



48 CORPORAL PUNISHMENT 

School board conventions, while as yet small 
and struggling, are designed to be institutions 
productive of much good. (See page 23.) 

CORPORAL PUNISHMENT. Argument.— 

Those who defend corporal punishment contend 
that the old maxim "spare the rod and spoil 
the child" holds goods at all times, that its ap- 
plication maintains discipline when no other ex- 
pediency can, and that it reclaims the incor- 
rigible when other means fail. 

The opponents hold that the infliction of cor- 
poral punishment is a form of savagery; that 
it brutalizes the teacher, hardens the culprit 
and has at the same time a debasing effect upon 
the well behaved pupil. The competent teacher, 
it is held, can govern by kindness and persua- 
sion. 

Exemption. — ^Parents are permitted to file 
with the principal a written request that their 
children be not corporally punished. Such chil- 
dren may be suspended for disorder, idleness 
and inattention to duties, for a period of not 
more than ten days for each offense; but no 
child can be readmitted after a third suspen- 
sion without the action of the board. 

All children in the kindergartens, the pupils 
in the high schools and girls in the grades are 
usually exempt. 

Freak Punishment.— Blows upon the head, 
violent shaking of pupils and lone confinement 
is prohibited. 



COURSE OF STUDY 49 

How Applied. — Either a strap or a rattan 
must be used when the necessity for corporal 
punishment arises, but must not be inflicted in 
the presence of the victim's classmates or dur- 
ing the lesson in the course of which the of- 
fense is committed. It should be applied only 
in extreme cases, as a last alternative, and only 
by the principal or by his express authority. 
The presence of a teacher is required in many 
localities to prevent excessive punishment and 
provide a competent . witness. 

Tendency. — Nearly one-half of the larger 
cities have abolished corporal punishment. The 
tendency in recent years has been to reduce the 
application of corporal punishment to a mini- 
mum. While some school systems have abol- 
ished it entirely, it has been deemed wise by 
others to take no official action, yet let it grad- 
ually sink into disuse. Teachers prefer that the 
rule authorizing them to inflict corporal punish- 
ment remain, although they may seldom if ever 
avail themselves of it. 

COURSE OF STUDY.— The objects of a 
course of study are to supply the teachers with 
a program defining the minimum matter to be 
taught children and stating the time periods 
within which certain parts of study are to be 
completed. It is not intended to state what a 
teacher should do each day, but rather to map 
out those studies which experience has shown 
are suitable for the elementary school and to 
suggest to the teacher methods for preparing 



50 CURFEW LAWS 

themselves and enlarging upon this work. Aii- 
other end is the unification of the work of all 
the schools to establish a common basis of ex- 
cellence. 

The problem of building a course of study 
is an important one and deserves the best at- 
tention of superintendents and teachers. School 
boards do not bear so close a relation to the 
course of study today as they did formerly. It 
is quite properly being recognized that the pro- 
fessional factors should formulate and bear the 
responsibility for the course. 

CURFEW LAWS. — In many towns and vil- 
lages the school boards have, in the interests of 
the schools, brought about the enactment of 
curfew laws. In such towns and villages the 
ordinance prohibits children under the age of 
fifteen years from being on the streets after 
nine o'clock P. M., unattended by some adult, 
except by permission in writing by the board of 
education. 

DEFECTIVES. — -The necessity of educating 
mentally and physically defective children at 
the expense of the state is generally recognized. 
Schools for such children are a part of the pub- 
lic school system in California, Ohio, Illinois, 
Michigan, Pennsylvania and Wisconsin. In- 
stitutions more or less closely connected with 
the public schools exist in at least twenty-six 
of the remaining states. 

There are two general classes of defectives. 
The first includes such as cannot be schooled 



DELIXQUEXTS 51 

in the regular classes, and require special in- 
stitutions for their care. These are feeble- 
minded, blind, and deaf children. Such of the 
first named as are not susceptible to improve- 
ment must, of course, be taken care of in state 
or private institutions. The tendency in larger 
cities is to provide day schools for the blind 
and deaf, in order not to deprive these children 
of the benefits of home surroundings and to 
save them from the evils of institutional life. 
The schools train such children so that they are 
able to take their place, in the world, as well 
as normal children do. 

The second class includes backward children, 
and such as have more or less important phy- 
sical defects. All of these are taken care of in 
special day schools. Where there are not 
enough to establish a separate school, ungraded 
classes are provided under qualified teachers. 
The object always kept in view is to relieve the 
deficiency and train the child, as much as pos- 
sible, to take its place as a self-sustaining citi- 
zen. 

DELINQUENTS.— Delinquent children are 
such as violate city ordinances or local laws, 
or commit offenses not punishable by death or 
imprisonment for life. Many states have "juve- 
nile'^ courts where such cases are tried and 
special institutions where punishment is meted 
out. The reform of the child is properly sought 
after, rather than punishment. 



52 DISINFECTION OF SCHOOLS 

DISINFECTION OF SCHOOLS. — Class- 
rooms may be disinfected thoroughly without 
the use of special apparatus- by the following 
method : 

First, see that all windows, doors and other 
openings are closed. 

Second, place all articles to be fumigated in 
the room. Books and other articles should be 
so opened that the gas may readily penetrate 
all parts. No fear need be entertained that the 
disinfectant will injure the finest fabric. 

Third, place six ounces of permanganate of 
potassium in a ten-quart pail; then pour in 
one pine of formaldehyde (40 per cent solu- 
tion) for each 500 cubic feet of room space. 
Never put more than three pints of formalde- 
hyde in the pail at one time. 

The mixture in the pail will boil with the 
heat generated by the chemical combination and 
formalin gas will be liberated very rapidly. 
Leave the room quickly and shut the door. The 
room should be kept closed for at least four 
hours. 

Although experiments have shown that for- 
maldehyde gas has considerable power of pene- 
tration, nevertheless it is recommended that 
floors and woodwork be scrubbed and all articles 
which can be boiled be so treated. 

DRINKING FOUNTAINS.— In place of the 
ordinary drinking cup which is considered un- 
sanitary by medical authorities a drinking foun- 
tain which is self-cleaning has been introduced. 



EQUALITY 58 

It is in use in all sections of the country and is 
giving satisfaction. 

The fountain or nozzle is egg shaped, with the 
opening on the top. A slight pressure of a 
ring, which surrounds the nozzle, causes the 
water to bubble up like a natural spring. When 
the pressure upon the ring ceases, the valve 
closes. By means of a detachable key, the out- 
flow from the nozzle may be regulated, accord- 
ing to the strength and volume of the supply. 

Aside from its sanitary advantages it pre- 
vents the splashing or squirting of water by 
mischievous boys. 

ENTERTAINMENTS. — The various forms 
of entertainment usually given by pupils and 
others under the direction of the principal or 
teachers of a school, where an assembly hall is 
provided, are ordinarily sanctioned by school 
boards. The latter in many instances demand, 
however, that where an admission fee is exacted 
a detailed report of the receipts and the dis- 
bursements of the funds be made. 

EQUALITY. — Under this heading a Texas 
v/riter says: "The public school system rec- 
ognizes no caste, no class, no political or sec- 
tarian standard. All classes, all phases of 
thought, are represented and the teacher gen- 
erally succeeds in harmonizing these various 
elements and bringing them together on a 
broad basis of mutual respect, love of human- 
ity and a high order of patriotism. If the ac- 
complishment of these results can be fairly 



54 ETHICAL COURSE 

claimed for the public school system every man, 
woman and child should be its friends and do 
all they can to increase its usefulness and make 
its influence felt in every department of hu- 
man effort and progress. The public schools 
deserve the support of all classes, not only on 
moral and intellectual grounds, but also on the 
grounds of a safe and sensible financial invest- 
ment by the community, the city or the state. 

ETHICAL COURSE.— One of the most in- 
teresting recent efforts to make ethical teaching 
systematic is that of the school authorities of 
Anderson, Ind., who have devised and adopted 
the following course in manners and morals : 

Pirst Grade — (1) obedience to parents and 
teachers; (2) kindness to parents, brothers, sis- 
ters, playmates; (3) unselfishness — sharing 
playthings, etc., with others; (4) love for pa- 
rents. 

Second Grade — (1) truthfulness — give nu- 
merous illustrations to enforce the lessons; (2) 
kindness to animals — read "Black Beauty;" (3) 
cleanliness of person and dress; (4) pleasant 
voice and pleasing manner; (5) love of home. 

Third Grade — (1) cheerfulness and the ad- 
vantage it is to one's self and the happiness it 
brings to others; (2) honesty and its rewards; 
(3) respect for parents, teachers, strangers and 
old people; (4) good habits — also some things 
to be avoided, as swearing, smoking, chewing, 
the use of coarse language; (5) love of the flag. 

Fourth Grade — (1) self-respect — the qualities 



ETHICAL COURSE 55 

a person must have before he will respect him- 
self; some of the rights and privileges of chil- 
dren; respect for the rights and privileges of 
others; (4) politeness at home; at the table, on 
the street, in company; letters of recommenda- 
tion — good habits, the best recommendation a 
boy or girl can have. 

Fifth Grade — (1) industry — its necessity, its 
benefits, its rewards; (2) promptness and regu- 
larity; (3) economy and its relations to getting 
on in the world; (4) justice; examples of jus- 
tice should be taken from the home, the school, 
the playground, and society; the idea may be 
enforced by the examples of injustice; (5) 
mercy; pupils should be taught to temper jus- 
tice with mercy; illustrated by the story of the 
unjust judge noted in the Bible. 

Sixth Grade — (1) the necessity of labor; (2) 
the rewards of labor; (3) the dignity of labor; 
children should be taught to honor the man 
or woman who works ; (4) unselfishness, and its 
corresponding vice, selfishness; (5) reverence 
for the aged, for those in authority, and for 
God. 

Seventh Grade — (1) respect for and obedi- 
ence of law; (2) why laws should be obeyed; 
(3) property rights — regard for the property of 
others; (4) duty of the strong to the weak; (5) 
temperance and sobriety. 

Eighth Grade — (1) freedom — political, reli- 
gious; (2) patriotism — what is it? How should 
we show our patriotism? (3) true manhood 
and true womanhood ; (4) the ideal family. 



56 EVENING SCHOOLS 

High School — (1) duty to family; (2) to so- 
ciety; (3) to the state; (4) to self; (5) to 
God. (See Moral Training.) 

EVENING SCHOOLS.— Although there is 
no class of schools which labors under greater 
difficulties, none brings greater returns in pro- 
portion to the expenditures than the evening 
schools. For the immigrant and the adult of 
insufficient common schooling, evening classes 
are practically the only means for mental ad- 
vancement. There are three general classes of 
evening schools : (1) schools in which instruc- 
tion is given to persons beyond the school age 
in the elementary branches. These exist in 
many places and are mostly patronized by for- 
eign born; (2) evening high schools established 
in larger cities for young people who have com- 
pleted the grammar schools. In these the or- 
dinary high school branches are taught with 
special emphasis upon the practical phases. 
Typewriting, bookkeeping, shorthand, business 
English are usually prominent branches. (3) 
industrial schools in which instruction is given 
in mechanical drawing and branches leading 
to the various trades, and in the trades them- 
selves. 

In Boston and several eastern cities schools 
known as "educational centers" have been de- 
veloped in recent years. These give practical 
instruction in such branches as dressmaking, 
millinery and cooking for women; bookkeeping, 
stenography, carpentry, mechanical drawing 



FIRE DRILLS 57 

and drafting for men. A reading room, study 
rooms and a gymnasium are usually conducted 
in connection with each of these centers. Lec- 
tures on literature, civil government and other 
practical topics are delivered from time to 
time. 

FADS IN EDUCATION.— A subject entirely 
out of place in the school curriculum is called 
a fad. A proper subject of study may also be- 
come a fad if it is over-emphasized. A careful 
study of the relative value of the subjects in a 
course of study will quickly discover the fads. 
The best remedy for fads is a speedy elimina- 
tion of the useless studies and a careful co- 
ordination of those which are necessary. 

FIRE DRILLS.— The introduction of fire 
drills for the safe removal of the pupils from 
the building in case of fire is earnestly recom- 
mended. Successful drills have saved thousands 
of children from a direful fate. 

Good sense, coolness and self-control on the 
part of the teachers during all the movements 
of the school must be inculcated and practiced, 
as essential to safety and success. All the 
doorways, hallways and all other means of 
egress and ingress must be used in an orderly 
and systematic manner under a well under- 
stood system of emergency signals. The alarm 
should be given by three taps on the fire gong, 
which ought to be placed in the hall of each 
building and in reach of the persons whose 
duty it may be to turn in an alarm. The teach- 



58 FOREIGN LANGUAGES 

ers should, "apon the momeiit of hearing the first 
signal, command the pupils to form in line. 
After sufficient time has been given to accom- 
plish this, the signal for marching should be 
given by sounding the gong with four taps in 
rapid succession. The emergency signal may be 
a continuous, quick tapping of the gong with- 
out any pause. 

No obstructions should be placed or allowed 
in the hallways, aisles and other passage ways. 
When emergency signals are given they must 
be obeyed without question or delay. The pu- 
pils pass out of the building promptly, taking 
their clothing, but not stopping to take books 
or other property. Teachers should be required 
to give prompt and efficient attention to all 
the movements of the pupils during such emer- 
gency occasions, and not to leave the rooms and 
hallways until the classes are out, unless other- 
wise directed under the plan. The signal is 
to be known in all schools as the "Emergency 
Signal." The average schoolhouse should be 
emptied in from one and one-half to three min- 
utes. 

These designated bells or gongs must be 
kept in good working order at all times. This 
can be assured only by daily examination. At 
least once a month, at unexpected times, fire 
drills should be held. 

' FOREIGN LANGUAGES. — The value of 
foreign language study in graded and high 
schools is threefold. It is first of all 



GRADUATION 59 

disciplinary. The analytic and reflective 
faculties of the mind are cultivated, the 
memory is exercised and the powers of 
application and concentration are strength- 
ened. The second value is cultural. A 
foreign language opens a new field of thought 
and gives the student an insight to a new litera- 
ture, new ideals, customs and manners. It will 
broaden the student and enable him to judge 
better our own literature, customs and ideals. 
The practical value of language study appeals 
most to the school board member. A knowledge 
of any of the modern languages gives the 
student a tool for the study of foreign tech- 
nical and professional literature. It will aid 
him in contact with his fellow men and is of 
immense value in commerce. 

GARDENS. — The school garden is the nat- 
ural culmination of the nature study move- 
ment. The latter started with an elaborate, 
vapory, theoretical system, but is growing more 
rational as it is becoming more commonplace. 

School garden has won a place for itself in 
school work. It has been found of immense 
help in language, drawing, arithmetic and na- 
ture study work. The normal schools are mak- 
ing the school garden a regular feature of their 
work. 

GRADUATION. — The customary exercises, 
in which graduates, or some of them, regale 
their friends with an exhibition of their foren- 
sic abilities, and in turn are greeted with flow- 



60 GRADUATION 

ers, music and well wishes, have their decided 
advantages as well as disadvantages. Nothing 
will draw the patrons and friends so closely to 
the school as do these exercises. I^o scene in 
the life of the pupil is more inspiring than are 
the graduation exercises. No event in the ca- 
reer of an ambitious girl or boy seems more 
important. 

The blessings which are showered upon the 
graduate as he parts from school and school 
companions, amid the radiance of light, the 
charm of music and flowers leave a keen im- 
pression upon his mind, and spur him to under- 
take life's battle more bravely. 

But there is a serious phase, aside from the 
good that is derived, in the so-called popular 
graduation exercises. The cost of flowers, mu- 
sic and dresses must be defrayed — and the par- 
ents of graduates must pay for them. The 
poor man loves his daughter as jealously as 
does the well-conditioned man. His daughter 
must not suffer by comparison. She must not 
object to the chagrin of a poor dress. She, too, 
must have flowers. And who can blame the 
poor girl? 

The poor man is simply a victim of custom. 
The sacrifices he is compelled to make are a 
form of extortion to which he usually submits 
patiently. And if he does not, his daughter is 
the real sufferer. 

The expensive customs which have become a 
part of the graduation exercises in graded and 
high schools have prompted school boards to 



GRADUATION 61 

radical reforms. While customs, which belong 
as much to the people as they do to the school 
authorities, may degenerate into public nui- 
sances, they are, nevertheless, difficult to eradi- 
cate. A number of school boards have, how- 
ever, instituted Tules regarding the conduct of 
public graduation exercises which obviate all 
abuses. Simplicity of dress, the omission of 
flowers, and of expensive music, have come 
within school board rules. Many of the schools 
in the larger and medium-sized cities have abol- 
ished the graduation exercises altogether, pre- 
ferring a lecture by some noted educator in- 
stead. This custom seems to be growing. 

Two evenings are commonly given to the 
graduation exercises — "Class Day'' and "Grad- 
uation" proper. At the latter, essays are read 
by a number of honor pupils, the standing 
throughout the course determining who these 
shall be. On the evening of class day a more 
popular form of entertainment is given, in- 
cluding the "Prophesy," "Class History," etc. 
The participants for the occasion are elected 
by the class and faculty. Music is furnished 
both evenings by the graduating class. The 
Sunday evening before the graduation the en- 
tire class listens to a baccalaureate sermon, 
either at one of the churches or at the high 
school assembly hall. 

In some cities the school board has decreed 
that high school graduates at the various exer- 
cises incident to their graduation shall wear 
cap and gown. 



62 HEATING 

The programs and music are usually provid- 
ed by the board. Where this is not done the 
pupils cover the cost by contributions, or else 
a nominal admission fee to the exercises is 
charged to defray the necessary expense. 

HEATING AND VENTILATION. — The 

heating and ventilation of buildings are so in- 
timately connected that they can not be treated 
separately. With a few exceptions in the ex- 
treme south, every school building in the 
United States needs some form of heating, 
and some form of ventilation. Heating and 
ventilation are the very heart and vitals of a 
building. 

Methods of Heating. — There are only three 
methods of heating school buildings which can 
be considered: By hot air furnaces, by steam, 
and by hot water. Heating a building by stoves 
is out of the question, except in buildings of 
one to three rooms in rural districts. Where a 
stove is employed it is surrounded by a sheet 
iron jacket extending from the floor to about 
six inches above the stove top. A fresh air in- 
let is provided in the floor, under the stove, to 
supply air for ventilation. The chimney is ar- 
ranged to contain a flue with a register near 
the floor line to carry off the cold and vitiated 
air. 

Furnace Heating. — Furnaces give good re- 
sults as to heating and ventilating or they may 
be absolute failures in either or both particu- 
lars, depending entirely on the style of furnaces 



STEAM HEATING . 63 

and the method of installation. Upright or 
house furnaces can not give good results, in 
fact, are failures in every respect. The fur- 
nace should be horizontal and all cast iron. 
The flues for conveying the warm air into the 
rooms should be of brick and set to one side of 
the furnace, and of a size sufficient to supply 
the rooms to which they lead. 

It must be remembered that in order to get 
air into a room some must be taken out, hence 
vents should be placed in several parts of the 
room at the floor and provision made for draw- 
ing the cold and foul air through them and out 
of the building. The foul air should enter the 
ventilating stack at the bottom and no other 
openings should be made into this stack or its 
efficiency will be destroyed. Foul and cold air 
are heavier than fresh air so that some method 
lor forcing this air from the building must be 
provided. In all cases the ventilating stack 
should extend above the roof. 

In buildings of eight rooms or more a fan 
should be introduced to force air into the build- 
ing through the furnace chamber, but care must 
be taken that the furnace is of sufficient ca- 
pacity to warm the air taken in. 

To get successful results with furnaces they 
must be installed by firms making a specialty 
of schoolhouse heating and who have a reputa- 
tion for that particular work. 

Steam Heating. — There are three methods by 
which a building may be heated by steam: 
First, by direct radiation, by which all the heat- 



64 VENTILATION 

ing is through the means of radiators, or 
coils. Such heating is as bad as a stove, and 
should never be tolerated for an instant, as it 
supplies no ventilation. Second, by direct radi- 
ation with ventilating ducts, i. e., the use of 
radiators or coils in the room to furnish the 
heat, with a system of ventilating pipes, which 
furnish sufficient air for the room at a tempera- 
ture of 68 to 70 degrees. This is a good form of 
heating, and the fact that the direct radiation 
in the room secures an abundance of heat at 
all times, and a proper amount of tempered air 
is also furnished throughout the ventilating 
flues, the system is complete. The third form is 
where all of the heat and all of the ventila- 
tion is given from the same flue. This is 
called an indirect method, there being no radia- 
tors in the room. This system is used a great 
deal in the middle west, and seems to be well 
liked by those who have used it largely. In 
this case there must be both tempered and hot 
air, so that when the room arrives at 70 de- 
grees the air can be modified so as to keep the 
room at the right temperature, but at the same 
time not to restrict the ventilation. The sys- 
tem is not strong enough, however, to give suf- 
ficient heat in very cold climates. 

Natural Ventilation. — ISTatural ventilation is 
ventilation caused by the heating of the air of 
the building, which, making it lighter, causes 
it to rise into the room, and from the room out 
at the roof. While this form of ventilation is 
better than none, it is very unreliable, and 



TEMPERATURE REGULATION 65 

should never be used in a building where there 
are six rooms or more, and where mechanical 
ventilation can be afforded. 

Mechanical Ventilation. — Mechanical ventila- 
tion means the forcing of air into the room by 
fans or blowers. It is well known that a fan 
or blower of a certain size, with a certain num- 
ber of revolutions, will force a certain amount 
of air, consequently the amount of air forced 
into the room remains the same at all times, 
whatever the wind or outside temperature may 
be. These fans may be run by a low pressure 
of steam from the boilers, and the exhaust 
from the engine run into the pipes. By that 
method the cost of running the fan is almost 
nothing. Fans are sometimes run by elec- 
tricity, gas engines or water motors. 

The Amount of Air Required for Ventilation. 

— By a great many experiments it has been de- 
termined that the lowest possible amount of air 
which should be furnished is 30 cubic feet per 
minute, or 1,800 cubic feet of air per hour for 
each occupant in the room. A less quantity 
than this is unhealthful, and a greater quantity 
is wasteful. 

Temperature Regulation. — Every schoolhouse 
equipped with a heating system either of steam, 
hot water or hot air should be supplied with 
automatic temperature regulation. School au- 
thorities who have given the subject no atten- 
tion, frequently confound temperature regula- 
tion with ventilation. The latter deals with 



66 TEMPERATURE REGULATION 

the supply of fresh air, while the former con- 
trols the temperature and prevents the rooms 
in a school from becoming too hot or too cold. 
The advantages derived in temperature control 
or regulation are twofold. 

First, by holding the temperature in a school- 
house, at say 70 degrees, all waste of fuel is 
prevented and consequently a considerable sav- 
ing is effected. Thousands of dollars have been 
wasted in a single schoolhouse by overheating 
and securing a cooler temperature by opening 
the windows. Every particle of excess heat 
which goes out of the window is an actual 
waste. If the outdoor temperature is 30 de- 
grees it will require 40 degrees of heat to bring 
the schoolroom temperature up to 70 degrees. 
If, however, the outdoor temperature is 50 de- 
grees only 20 degrees of heat are required to 
insure the comfort of the schoolroom. A re- 
liable system of temperature control will fur- 
nish the exact amount of heat required and 
avoid all e:j^cessive consumption of fuel and 
consequently avoid all extravagance in this di- 
rection. 

Second, by keeping the classrooms at an even 
temperature the health and comfort of teach- 
ers and pupils are promoted. A classroom 
that is too cold causes physical discomforts 
which may result in ill health. A classroom 
that is too hot is even worse. The average 
teacher will resort to an open window for re- 
lief. The draughts from these open windows 
are certain to bring on coughs and colds, w^hich 



SCHOOL HOLIDAYS 67 

only too frequently end in throat or pulmonary 
troubles. The cause of education is as much 
promoted by hygienic surroundings and phy- 
sical comfort of pupils as by teachers and text- 
books. Hence automatic temperature regula- 
tion is regarded by the highest authorities as 
a necessity. 

HOLIDAYS. — Following is a list of school 
holidays commonly accepted : 

January 1. New Years Day — In all the 
states (including the District of Columbia, 
Arizona and ISTew Mexico), except Massachu- 
setts, Mississippi and New Hampshire. 

January 8. Anniversary of the Battle of 
New Orleans — In Louisiana. 

January 19. Lee's Birthday — In Florida, 
Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Vir- 
ginia and Alabama. 

February 12. Lincoln's Birthday — ^In Con- 
necticut, Illinois, Minnesota, New Jersey, New 
York, North Dakota, Pennsylvania, Washing- 
ton (State) and Wyoming. 

February (Third Tuesday). Spring Election 
Day — ^In Pennsylvania. 

February 22. Washington's Birthday — ^In all 
the states (including the District of Colum- 
bia and Arizona), except Mississippi, where it 
is observed by exercises in the public schools 
only. 

March 2. Anniversary of Texan Independ- 
ence — In Texas. 



68 SCHOOL HOLIDAYS 

. Good Friday — In Alabama, Louisi- 
ana, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Tennessee. 

April 19. Patriots' Day — ^In Massachusetts. 

April 21. Anniversary of the Battle of San 
Jacinto — In Texas. 

April 26. Confederate Memorial Day — In 
Alabama, Florida, Georgia and Mississippi. 

May 10. Confederate Memorial Day — In 
North Carolina and South Carolina. 

May (Second Friday). Confederate Day — 
In Tennessee. 

May 20. Anniversary of the Signing of the 
MecJclenhurg Declaration of Independence — In 
North Carolina. 

May 30. Decoration Day — In all the states 
and territories (and District of Columbia), ex- 
cept Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Louisi- 
ana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Caro- 
lina, Texas. In Virgina, known as "Confeder- 
ate Memorial Day." 

June 3. Jefferson Davis' Birthday — In Flor- 
ida, Georgia and Alabama. In Louisiana, 
known as "Confederate Decoration Day.'^ 

July 4. Independence Day — In all the states,. 
District of Columbia and territories. 

September, 1st Monday. Lahor Day — In all 
the states and territories (and District of Co- 
lumbia), except Arizona, Mississippi, Nevada 
and North Dakota. In Louisiana observed in 
Orleans Parish. 

September 9. Admission Day — In Califor- 
nia. 

November 1. All Saints Day — In Louisiana. 



SCHOOL HOLIDAYS 69 

November . General Election Day — In 

Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Indi- 
ana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mary- 
land, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, Ne- 
vada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, 
North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon (vote 
for Presidential elections only), Pennsylvania, 
Khode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, 
Tennessee, Texas, West Virginia, Washington, 
Wisconsin and Wyoming, in the years when 
elections are held therein. 

November . Thanksgiving Day (usually 

the fourth Thursday in November) — Is ob- 
served in all the states, and in the District of 
Columbia, Arizona and New Mexico, though 
in some states it is not a statutory holiday. 

December 25. Christraas Day — In all the 
states, and in the District of Columbia, Ari- 
zona, New Mexico and Oklahoma. 

There are no statutory holidays in Missis- 
sippi, but by common consent the Fourth of 
July, Thanksgiving and Christmas are observed 
as holidays. In Kansas Decoration Day, La- 
bor Day and Washington's Birthday are the 
only legal holidays by legislative enactment; 
other legal holidays are so only by common con- 
sent. In New Mexico, Washington's Birthday, 
Decoration Day, Labor Day, Flag Day (June 
14), and Arbor Day are holidays when so desig- 
nated by the governor. 

Arbor Day is a legal holiday in Arizona, 
Maine, Minnesota, New Mexico, North Dakota, 
Wisconsin and Wyoming, the day being set by 



70 SCHOOL HYGIENE 

the governor ; in Texas, February 22 ; ISTebraska, 
April 22; U.tah, April 15; Ehode Island, May 
11; Montana, second Tuesday in May; Florida, 
first Friday in February; Georgia, first Friday 
in December; Colorado (school holiday only), 
third Friday in April. Other states are : Cal- 
ifornia, Colorado, Connecticut, Illinois, In- 
diana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Maryland, 
Massachusetts, Michigan, Missouri, New Jer- 
sey, New York, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, 
Tennessee and Vermont. 

There is no national holiday, not even the 
Fourth of July. Congress has at various times 
appointed special holidays. The proclamation 
of the President designating a day of Thanks- 
giving only makes it a legal holiday in the Dis- 
trict of Columbia and the territories, and in 
those states which provide by law for it. 

HYGIENE AND SANITATION. — School 

hygiene has been defined as the application of 
a system of principles and rules for preserv- 
ing the health of children in the schools. It 
is the duty of school authorities to equip school 
houses so as to promote the physical welfare of 
the pupils. The board not only owes such a 
provision to those who support the schools, but 
also to the pupils and teachers to enable them 
to carry out more successfully the work as- 
signed to them. Physical strength is a prerequi- 
site to intellectual strength: The state laws 
as well as the rules of school boards relating 
to school hygiene are becoming stricter from 



AND SANITATION 71 

year to year as the grave importance of the sub- 
ject is more clearly appreciated. Heating, ven- 
tilating and lighting are factors which are grad- 
ually coming within the range of the average 
school code. 

While this movement aims primarily to 
eradicate the miserable condition of many old 
buildings and to check the grievous neglect in 
the sanitation of new ones, there are individual 
boards whose attitude on the subject is of a most 
progressive nature. Not only do they recog- 
nize only the most approved systems of heat- 
ing, but the temperature is regulated by auto- 
matic devices and kept at seventy degrees, thus 
insuring the comfort and promoting the phy- 
sical welfare of both pupil and teacher. 

The ventilation in schoolhouses is fixed at 
30 cubic feet per minute per pupil. In a num- 
ber of schools this fresh air is not only warmed 
to the desired degree, but is freed from dust 
and soot and supplied with the necessary mois- 
ture. The result is a healthful complexion, a 
better disposition among the occupants of the 
building and greater activity in schoolroom 
labors. 

Lighting, too, comes in for greater attention 
now than ever before. The window surface is 
at least one-fifth and where the conditions of 
light are unfavorable at least one-fourth of 
the fioor space of a classroom. The fact that 
the light should come in from one side of the 
room — the left side— only is being more fully 
recognized. Glass prisms are beginning to be 



72 TEACHERS' INSTITUTES 

used in shedding light into the darker recesses 
of a building. 

The sweeping problem, too, has been solved. 
Instead of the dry broom or wet sawdust 
method of sweeping the dustless brush is being 
used. It reduces the dust by fully 90 per cent 
over the old methods. 

The windows, doors and all woodwork in all 
the rooms are scrubbed and disinfected fre- 
quently. 

Water buckets and the drinking cup have 
given way to drinking fountains, which con- 
stantly cleanse themselves and are strictly sani- 
tary. 

Expectorating on the floors is forbidden and 
in a number of instances school boards o];der 
teachers to wear short skirts in order that no 
disease germs may be swept from the street 
pavement and carried into the schoolrooms. 

INSTITUTES FOR TEACHERS. — These 

are periodic meetings of teachers of a district 
(municipal, town or county) for the study of 
the theory and art of teaching. They consist 
of lectures, conferences and instructions in (a) 
professional studies, such as school manage- 
ment, pedagogy, etc., (b) academic studies, such 
as may seem best suited to the needs of the 
teachers, and (c) official instruction by the 
county or city superintendent of schools. These 
last relate especially to reports and other offi- 
cial duties of teachers. In many places insti- 
tutes afford the only professional training which 
teachers receive. 



JANITOR SERVICE 73 

JANITOR SERVICE. After a schoolhouse 
has been erected its advantageous use rests 
largely upon the competency of the janitor, or 
custodian. The best features in the interior 
planning of the school in the direction of utility 
and sanitation may be rendered useless by an 
ignorant and careless janitor, l^o heating and 
ventilating system can render satisfactory serv- 
ice unless its mechanism is understood and 
the rules governing its operation are complied 
with. 

The working of the most efficient corps of 
instructors will be hampered by an inefficient 
janitor. 

The janitor should be at least thirty years 
of age, married and reside within convenient 
distance of the school. He should be a man 
of correct habits, morally clean, understand 
the construction and manipulation of a heat- 
ing system and be able to make all ordinary 
repairs in or about a school building. He 
should also be thoroughly familiar with the 
ventilating apparatus. 

Appointment and dismissal. Janitors should 
be appointed on merit, just as teachers are se- 
lected. In large cities they are generally ap- 
pointed from a civil service list, by the super- 
intendent of buildings or other officer, subject 
to the approval of the board. 

Janitors are usually required to give thirty 
days' notice of intention to leave their posi- 
tions. In most cities they may be summarily 
discharged by the superintendent or by some 



74 JANITORS' DUTIES 

other officer of schools, or by a committee of 
the board, subject to the approval of the whole 
board. 

Duties. The duties of janitors are manifold 
and varied, but come under one of three heads : 
A, cleaning, B, heating, C, caretaking. 

A. School boards usually require janitors to 
sweep daily each schoolroom and hall after close 
of school. Desks and furniture must be wiped 
with a damp cloth each morning. Floors of* 
classroom, stairs and hallways must be scrubbed 
once a month or at least quarterly. Windows 
are to be washed at least four times a year. 
Chalk troughs and erasers must be dusted 
weekly and blackboards should be washed every 
Saturday. Inkwells should be cleaned and 
washed and refilled at least every two months. 
Doors and woodwork should be kept clean and 
thoroughly washed once each year during the 
summer vacation. All defacements on walls, 
floors, toilets, fences, etc., should be removed 
promptly. Basements and attics should be kept 
clean and free from rubbish, ashes, rags, paper, 
etc. Walks and pavements should be kept free 
from snow and ice in the winter and from dust 
and mud in the summer; grass should be cut 
as often as necessary; playgrounds should be 
kept clean of weeds and rubbish. Fire escapes 
should be kept clear at all times. 

Water closets and urinals should be flushed 
at sufficiently frequent intervals to keep them 
in a thoroughly sanitary and odorless condition. 



POWERS OF JANITORS 75 

B. Janitors are expected to lieat their build- 
ings comfortably at all times and see that they 
are properly ventilated. They are expected to 
keep the heating and ventilating plant in good 
condition at all times. During severe weather 
they must keep sufficient fire to prevent pipes 
from freezing. 

C. Janitors are custodians of school build- 
ings and as such are responsible for them and 
for material in them, at all times when the 
classes are not in session. For this reason 
boards employ janitors for full twelve months 
and give them full charge during the va- 
cation periods. They are required to report 
all cases of disfigurement and injury of build- 
ings or property to the principal. During 
school hours and in the summer during work- 
ing hours they are not permitted to absent 
themselves from the school property except on 
business of the school. 

The rules of most school boards provide that 
the janitor may not admit to the school build- 
ing persons who have no business with the 
school. 

Powers. Janitors are always under the im- 
mediate direction of the principal and subject 
to his orders. They have no authority over 
pupils except to preserve the school property 
from damage. In many places they are clothed 
with police powers to keep outsiders from in- 
terfering with the good order of the school' or 
to repel prowlers and tramps. 



76 KINDERGARTENS 

KINDERGARTENS.— The kindergarten af- 
fords an almost ideal means for begin- 
ning the school life of children between 
the ages of four and six. They are 
then not yet ready to learn how to read or 
write and the kindergarten with its games, 
numbers, drawing, weaving, singing, etc., gives 
them just that mental and physical exercise 
which they require. The kindergarten was 
created by the genius of Froebel in the early 
part of the last century and was introduced 
into this country in 1855. 

The kindergarten has stimulated child study, 
reduced and simplified instruction in the pri- 
mary grades and acted as a moral influence. 

LIBRARIES. — Every school, no matter how 
small, needs a library, carefully indexed by 
authors, subjects, and titles, on the card index 
plan. Every classroom should have a few well 
selected desk books for the teacher's use in the 
work of the class. Where public libraries exist, 
there should be active co-operation with the 
schools. 

LUNCH COUNTERS.— Light lunches are 
served in many high schools where the noon re- 
cess is short and pupils are obliged to go long 
distances to their homes. The only objection that 
has been raised is where the lunches are of an 
elaborate character and the purchases may 
reveal a line of demarkation between the chil- 
dren of rich and poor parents. The school 
boards usually equip the lunch rooms and em- 



MANUAL TRAINING 77 

ploy a salaried manager to take charge of the 
same. It is aimed not to make any profit, but 
to serve plain, wholesome food at nioderate cost. 

MANUAL TRAINING.— No so-called special 
study which has in recent years found its way 
into the schools of the United States has ex- 
perienced such ready and universal recognition 
as manual training. Its purpose is not to make 
skilled mechanics in any department of indus- 
try, but to develop correct habits, thought, di- 
rected effort and acquired skill. It is held to 
be as ^'intellectual, enabling and uplifting as 
are the liberal arts." 

The following extract from a school report 
covers concisely its advantages : 

"First. That the boys from fourteen to six- 
teen years old will be better satisfied to stay in 
school. 

"Second. The manual training will tend to 
intensify interest in other school work. 

"Third. That it will effectually assist in the 
intellectual and moral growth 'of the students 
who take the work. 

"Fourth. That it will not add anything to 
the school burden of the pupils, but, by develop- 
ing the pupil's practical side, and furnishing at 
the same time physical exercise and change of 
intellectual effort will enable him to master his 
academic work enough easier to offset the time 
put upon manual training work. 

"Fifth. That it encourages thrift, industry 
and love of skillful work, and cultivates respect 
for the skillful workman. 



78 MANUAL TRAINING 

"Sixth. That it develops love for order, ex- 
actness and neatness. 

"Seventh. That it trains to perceive, ana- 
lyze, construct and originate. 

"Eighth. That it lengthens the school life 
of boys whose tastes are not especially intel- 
lectual by giving them school work in which 
they can see tangible benefits. 

"Ninth. And last, that it gives the great 
mass of pupils, children of the poor, who can- 
not finish the high school, a mental and manual 
equipment for life's work which other schools 
cannot give." 

Manual training as far as it pertains to pri- 
mary and grammar grades includes sewing and 
cooking for girls; and knife, tool and bench 
work in wood for boys. 

A typical manual training course for high 
schools may be found in the following: 

First year, first semester — Joinery, mechan- 
ical drawing, freehand drawing. 

Second semester — Turning, mechanical draw- 
ing, freehand drawing. 

Second year, first semester — Carving, me- 
chanical drawing, freehand drawing. 

Second semester — Cabinet making, mechan- 
ical drawing. 

Third year, first semester — ^Pattern making, 
mechanical drawing. 

Second semester — Forge work, mechanical 
drawing. 

Fourth year, first semester — Machine shop, 
mechanical drawing. 



MEDICAL INSPECTION 79 

Second semester — -Machine shop, mechanical 
drawing, freehand drawing. 

MEDICAL INSPECTION. — The idea of 
medical inspection is based on the proposition 
that an ounce of prevention is worth a pound 
of cure, and, as such, it has been eminently 
successful. Where the plan has been intro- 
duced it has been found of immense benefit 
not only for correcting physical defects of 
sight, hearing, respiration, etc., in children, in 
preventing epidemics of contagious diseases, 
but also in adding to the mental powers of 
children 

In some localities, the inspection includes 
only an annual examination of the eyes and 
ears of children. In others, it extends to a 
daily examination of children who give signs 
of being ill. Those who are found to be in 
the incipient stages of infectious disease are 
sent home, and their isolation is effected. Those 
who are merely ill are advised to go home for 
treatment. 
_ A complete plan of inspection would include 

(A) an annual or semi-annual examination of 
every school child with especial reference to 
(1) Defects in eyes, ears, nose, mouth and 
throat, (2) Lungs and chest, (3) Spinal sys- 
tem, (4) General strength, (5) Nervous force; 

(B) Daily examination of children who give 
signs of illness, to prevent the spread of con- 
tagious diseases. (C) An annual inspection of 
the sanitary condition of each school building. 



80 MILITARY DRILL 

Trained nurses to visit the homes of poor chil- 
dren who are ill would be a logical part of such 
a system. 

MILITARY DRILL.— Its enthusiastic advo- 
cates hold that military drill in schools is re- 
fining and elevating in every point of view; 
that it aids in teaching the rising generation 
the importance of law, order and discipline — 
above all, that it turns their thoughts to a 
closer study of American history, and fits them to 
defend the republic if it ever shall be in peril. 
Again, that it promotes the physical welfare 
of the student and that as an exercise it is far 
superior to the feeble, meaningless calisthenics 
that are required by some teachers, while its 
disciplinary benefits are excellent. It restrains 
nervousness and awkwardness, imparts readi- 
ness, and inculcates order, cleanliness and 
obedience. 

Those who oppose military drill in the schools 
argue that the growth of the spirit of militarism 
in our midst is to be regretted, believing that 
such training to be highly detrimental to the 
youth of our land as tending to encourage a 
love of war and bloodshed, rather than the 
preservation of peace; that it is undemocratic 
and un-American in principle and dangerous to 
the stability of republican institutions. Felix 
Adler says: "Military drill simply feeds the 
children's vanity, gives them a desire for out- 
ward show and makes them ambitious of sham 
and tinsel and creates a false idea of war." 



NEPOTISM SI 

MORAL TRAINING.— In a number of cities 
among the board of education's rules governing 
teachers appears the following one : It is par- 
ticularly enjoined upon the teachers to regard 
the moral and social culture of their pupils as 
not less important than their mental discipline. 
They must not tolerate in them falsehood^ pro- 
fanity, cruelty or any other form of vice. By 
example and precept they shall endeavor to form 
them to habits of social refinement, forbidding 
the use of indelicate, coarse and ungrammatical 
language. 

The school laws of some states , require that 
"the teachers to the utmost of their ability in- 
culcate in the minds of their pupils correct 
principles of morality and a particular regard 
for the laws of society, and for the government 
under which we live." (See Ethical Training.) 

NARCOTICS. — The school code of every 
state provides for the study of the effects of 
the use of alcoholic drinks and narcotics. In 
some instances text-books must be provided. 
Some states provide a penalty, others do not. 

NEPOTISM. — The rules under this heading 
which have been adopted by school boards are 
embodied in the following: 

No person shall serve as school trustee who 
may have a relation of sanguinity as close or 
closer than a nephew, niece or cousin, and who 
may be employed in any department of the 
teaching force of the schools. 

No teacher is appointed to any school to 



82 N0R3IAL SCHOOLS 

whom any member of the school com.mittee or 
the superintendent is related by either blood 
or marriage, as husband, wife, father, mother, 
son, daughter, brother, sister, uncle, aunt, 
nephew, niece or first cousin. 

NORMAL SCHOOLS.— State normal schools 
are the natural outgrowth of our attitude 
toward education. Experience has shown that 
the state alone can supply qualified teachers. 
The function of the normal school is to train 
teachers for the elementary schools. It does 
not exist to enable its graduates to secure bet- 
ter positions and higher salaries, but to benefit 
the children in the public schools especially, and 
all the people in general. To fully accomplish 
its work the normal school must lead in edu- 
cation; it must project the future of public 
instruction. 

PARENTS.— The difficulties of teachers need 
not be enumerated here in order to demonstrate 
that they are entitled to the sympathy and co- 
operation of the parents. An antagonistic at- 
titude on the part of parents to the school au- 
thorities is frequently the cause of differences 
between teachers and pupils. A suspicious par- 
ent can do more damage than the best teacher 
can repair. 

In the education of the child the parent has 
a duty to perform as well as the teacher. The 
parent should see to it that the child is punc- 
tual and regular in attendance, that it is clean 
and decently clothed, that the necessary books,. 



PARLIAMENTARY RULES 83 

paper and pencils are supplied promptly. The 
parent should be slow in condemning the 
teacher. A visit to the teacher undertaken in 
the proper spirit will do much to prevent mis- 
understandings. 

PARLIAMENTARY PROCEDURE.— 

Forms. — On motion for the previous question, 
the form to be observed is, ^^Shall the main 
Question be now put?" This, if carried, ends 
debate. 

On motion to strike out words: "Shall the 
words stand as part of the motion?'' Unless a 
majority sustains the words they are struck out. 

On an appeal from the chair's decision: 
"Shall the decision be sustained as the ruling 
of the house?" The chair is generally sus- 
tained. 

On motion for orders of the day: "Will the 
house now proceed to the orders of the day?" 
This, if carried, supersedes intervening motions. 

When an objection is raised to considering 
the question: "Shall the question be consid- 
ered?" Objection may be made by any mem- 
ber before debate has commenced, but not 
subsequently 

Priority of Questions. — First — Time to which 
an adjournment may be made. 

Second — To adjourn without limitation. 

Third — Motion for the orders of the day. 

Fourth — Motion to lay on the table. 

Fifth — Motion for the previous question. 

Sixth — Motion to postpone definitely. 



84 PARLIAMENTARY RULES 

Seventh — Motion to commit. 

Eighth — Motion to amend. 

Ninth — Motion to postpone indefinitely. 

MOTIONS MADE. 

Motion to adjourn 1 a * 

to determine time to which to adjourn 2 a t 

to amend 3 a t 

to amend an amendment 3 a t 

to amend the rules 3 a t 

Appeal from speaker's decision re in- 
decorum 1 a * 

Appeal from speaker's decision gen'ly. .3a* 

Call to order 1 a * 

Motion lo close debate on question. ... 1 a t 

to refer 3 b t 

to extend limits of debate on quest'n. 1 a t 
to continue speaking after indecorum. 1 a * 

to lay on the table 1 a * 

to limit debate on question 1 a t 

Objection to consideration of question.. 1 a * 

Motion for orders of the day 1 a * 

to postpone to a definite time 4 a t 

to postpone indefinitely ...3 b * 

for previous question. . . . ., 1 a * 

.Questions touching priority of business 1 a t 

of privilege 3 a t 

Reading papers 1 a * 

Motion to reconsider debatable question 3b* 
to reconsider an undebatable question 1 a * 

to refer a question 3 b t 

that committee do now rise 1 a * 

Question whether subject be discussed, .la* 
Motion to make subject a special order. 3 a t 
To substitute — -nature of an amendment 3 a t 

Motion to suspend the rules 1 a * 

to take from the table 1 a * 

take up question out of proper order. 1 a * 
to withdraw a motion 1 a * 

Follow each motion to its respective refer- 
ence on the opposite page. The tables embrace 
nearly three hundred points of order. 



B 


n II X 


A 


n II X 


A 


n II X 


A 


n II X 


A 


II X 


A 


n II y 


A 


n II 7 


A 


nllly 


A 


II X 


A 


n II X 


A 


n II X 


A 


n II X 


C 


n II X 


A 


II X 


A 


ollly 


A 


nllly 


A 


n II X 


A 


n II X 


A 


II X 


A 


n II X 


A 


n II X 


A 


n II X 


B 


n II z 


B 


n II z 


A 


n II X 


B 


n II X 


B 


ollly 


A 


II X 


A 


n II X 


B 


II X 


C 


n II X 


A 


II X 


A 


n II X 



TEACHERS' PENSIONS 

HOW DISPOSED OF. 

1 Undebatable: sometimes remarks tacitly allowed. 

2 Undebatable if another question is before the body. 

3 Debatable. 

4 Limited debate only on propriety of postponement. 

a Does not allow reference to main question, 
b Opens the main question to debate. 

* Cannot be amended. 
t May be amended. 

A Can be reconsidered. 

B Cannot be reconsidered. 

C An affirmative vote cannot be reconsidered. 

o Requires two-thirds, unless special rules govern, 
n Simple majority suffices to determine. 



II Motion must be seconded 
III Does not require to be se 



to be seconded. 

X Not in order when another has the floor. 

y In order at any time, though another has the floor. 

z May be moved and entered on the record when an- 
other has the floor, but business then before the 
assembly may not be put aside. The motion must 
be made by one who voted on the prevailing side, 
and on the same day as the original vote was 
taken. 

PENSIONS FOR TEACHERS. The pen- 
sion idea as applied to educational workers in 
America is of comparatively recent date. The 
countries of Europe have had pensions for 
years for superannuated teachers. In the 
United States the first legalized teachers' pen- 
sions were paid in the state of New Jersey. 

The funds for pensioning teachers are de- 
rived from several sources: (a) percentages 
paid by teachers out of their salaries, (b) 
amounts of salary lost by teachers on account 
of absence, (c) fines for tardiness or other 
lapses of duty, (d) direct appropriations by the 



86 PENSION ARGUMENTS 

state, (e) fines and special taxes from special 
licenses, etc. 

Arguments for Pensions. The reasons for 
teachers' pensions, briefly summarized, are: 

Pensions are merely a part of adequate com- 
pensation. 

They relieve the teacher's mind from the fear 
of an old age of poverty or dependence. 

They tend to elevate the profession of teach- 
ing by attracting able men and women, and by 
retaining them during the period of efficiency. 

They make possible the retirement of the 
aged and the disabled without hardship, and 
so promote the dignity and general efficiency 
of the corps. 

They tend to enable teachers to live in a 
manner to some extent becoming their ex- 
tremely important and useful profession. 

They allow teachers to spend more money for 
travel, for books, for additional professional 
training, and for all those means of improve- 
ment so conducive to the welfare not only of 
the teachers personally, but of their pupils. The 
importance of the great law of imitation, 
whether conscious or unconscious, in the rela- 
tion of pupil and teacher, cannot be over- 
estimated. 

Pensions afford a slight compensation to men 
and women of first rate ability for sacrificing 
all the emoluments of other financially profit- 
able but less useful professions. 

By the substitution of teachers on minimum 
salaries for those retiring on maximum salaries. 



PHYSICAL CULTURE 87 

the cost of a pension system is greatly re- 
duced, while the general efficiency of the 
teaching force is promoted. 

As the welfare of the children is the su- 
preme law of the school, and as the pension 
system promotes the efficiency of the teaching 
force, it is evident that the welfare of the 
children, largely dependent as it is on the effi- 
ciency of the teaching force, demands this 
system. 

PHYSICAL CULTURE.— Nearly all the city 
schools throughout the United States impart 
physical training of some form. In the pri- 
mary and grammar schools calisthenics, breath- 
ing exercises, and the so-called "setting up^ 
drills" are introduced, while in the high 
schools gymnasium work and athletics find a 
place. In some localities military drill for 
boys replaces other forms of physical culture. 

The state of Pennsylvania has a law making 
it the duty of school directors to make proper 
provision in all schools under their jurisdiction 
to give the pupils physical culture by a regular 
and progressive course. Tailure to do so is 
deemed sufficient cause for withholding the 
warrant for state's appropriation for school 
money to which the district would otherwise be 
entitled. Ohio and other states have similar 
laws. 

"The objects of a system of physical training 
are : 

(a) A stimulation of the growth of the body 



88 PLAYGROUNDS 

in general, and development of the vital organs 
in particular. 

(b) The development of strength, quickness 
and agility. 

(c) The removal of bodily defects, or pre- 
dispositions brought about by school life. 

(d) An increase of vitality to give the body 
resistance against sickness. 

(e) A general basic training of those men- 
tal powers which are necessary for the growth 
of the will, and which are recognized as obedi- 
ence, submission to rules and order, persever- 
ance, courage, self-reliance, and self-control." 

PLAYGROUNDS.— Should be covered with 
natural gravel or sand mixed with gravel, and 
should have an easy slope in order to effect a 
ready drainage. Where possible the ground 
should be large enough to permit some orna- 
mentation such as grass plots, shrubbery and 
trees. There should be a separate entry for 
boys and girls, and these should be ample in 
width. 

It is estimated that thirty square feet of 
playground space should be allowed for each 
pupil. 

POLITICS. — The rules of the school boards 
usually provide that no paid employe of the 
board shall take an active part in any political 
campaign under pain of dismissal. 

PRINCIPALS.— The principals are at the 
head of affairs in each school building. They 



PUBLIC PRESS 89 

are clothed with authority to direct the work 
of the teachers, to exercise a general super- 
vision, to inspect, to criticise, to help both 
teachers and pupils. Principals should have an 
accurate and comprehensive knowledge of all 
that is going on and for this reason should fre- 
quently visit each class, hear recitations, in- 
spect written work, provide tests and examina- 
tions. A good principal will instantly detect 
faults in the preparation of lessons, in methods 
of teaching and discipline, and will in a help- 
ful spirit correct and assist the teachers. Prin- 
cipals are required to exercise a careful super- 
vision over the school grounds, corridors, etc. ; 
they assign teachers to supervise the play at 
the recesses of the day, and before and after 
class. 

PUBLIC PRESS. — School authorities, in 
dealing with the representatives of the press, 
constantly feel that the full publicity of all 
school matters is not always conducive to the 
best interest of the schools. Being fully war- 
ranted in this feeling, school boards are, how- 
ever, apt to become overzealous in withholding 
news matter from the public and thereby come 
into conflict with the press representatives. 

Good judgment, together with ordinary tact, 
must here establish a correct attitude towards 
the press. Experience has taught that the aver- 
age newspaper stands ready to withhold from 
publicity matter that is apt to undermine the 
prestige and discipline of the school system. 



90 PUPILS 

Executive sessions give rise to suspicion and 
should therefore not be engaged in oftener than 
necessary. 

PUPILS. Absentees. — Every pupil absent or 
tardy is required to promptly bring a written 
excuse from parent or guardian. In case a 
pupil has been absent a half -day and continues 
absent the next half-day, notice of such ab- 
sence is sent to the parents. A repetition of 
such absence necessitates that a notice be sent 
to the truant officer, who will promptly investi- 
gate the case. Sickness or imperative necessity 
are the only valid excuses for absence Dis- 
missals before the close of school are granted 
only in case of some pressing emergency. 

Any pupil who is absent four half days in 
four successive weeks, without excuse satis- 
factory from the parent or guardian, usually 
forfeits his seat to the school. Pupils thus 
suspended are not to be restored until the parent 
or guardian shall satisfy the superintendent 
that the pupil will be punctual in the future, 
and obtain from him a permit to return. 

Admission. — The public elementary schools 
are free to pupils of the following ages: 

4 to 20, Wisconsin. 

5 to 21, Idaho, Iowa, Kansas, Maine, Minne- 
sota, Mississippi, Nebraska, New Mexico, New 
York, Virginia. 

5 to 20, Michigan, New Jersey. 

5 to 18, Vermont, Porto Eico. 

6 to 21, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Col- 



CONSUMPTIVES 91 

orado, Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Maryland, 
Montana, North Carolina, Ohio, Oregon, South 
Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Washing- 
ton, West Virginia, Wyoming. 

6 to 20, Kentucky, Missouri, North Dakota. 

6 to 18, Georgia, Louisiana, Nevada, Utah. 

7 to 17, Texas. 

7 to 21, Alabama. 

From 5 upward, in Connecticut. 

From 6 upward, in Delaware, District of Co- 
lumbia. 

Massachusetts and New Hampshire have no 
age limit. 

School boards, however, make rules in the 
interest of the school by which children delay- 
ing entrance longer than two weeks after the 
beginning of each semester are excluded until 
the succeeding semester. 

Consumptives. — Medical authorities hold that 
it is not necessary to enforce an absolute rule 
excluding consumptives from school. It is 
highly essential that every consumptive per- 
mitted to attend school should be required to 
minutely carry out necessary measures to pre- 
vent communicating his disease to others. 
Every effort should be made to have an early 
knowledge of consumptive teachers or scholars; 
and to that end medical inspection of schools 
is the best means. Consumptives should be 
dissuaded from attending school for their own 
sake. Much good might be accomplished, and 
these recommendations be much more easily 
enforced, if all teachers and older scholars were 



92 PUPILS' DEPORTMENT 

fully instructed in the prevention and cure of 
tuberculosis. 

Deportment. — The rules under this heading 
usually require that pupils refrain from the use 
of tobacco, and from vile and profane language, 
and other immoral conduct of any kind, to be 
neat in their persons and punctual and regular 
in attendance, diligent in study and faithful in 
observance of every rule. 

Detention. — The position of schaol authori- 
ties on this subject is well expressed in the fol- 
lowing: No pupil shall be detained in school 
during recess as a punishment, but a teacher 
may detain a pupil for a reasonable time after 
the close of the session, either for the purpose 
of discipline, or to make up neglected lessons; 
and janitors shall not interfere with rooms so 
occupied. 

Discipline. — School rules usually provide that 
teachers shall discipline all the children as 
nearly as possible as would a judicious parent. 
It is set forth in rules that this can be secured 
by kindness, firmness and self-control on the 
part of the teacher, combined with the con- 
stant and cheerful activity on the part of the 
pupil and the encouraging atmosphere of the 
schoolroom. 

Excuses. — No pupil should be from school 
during the regular daily session to take music, 
dancing, drawing or other lessons, or to attend 
any public entertainment or matinee, or to 
leave school to attend to other duties, without 



HOME STUDY 93 

the express permission of the principal. Such 
requests should be made by the parent of the 
child in person or by letter to the principal. 

Pupils should be required in all cases of 
absence to bring, on their return to school, an 
excuse in writing from their parents or guar- 
dian, assigning good and sufficient reasons for 
such absence. The only valid excuses for ab- 
sence are: 

1. Sickness of the pupil. 

2. Sickness or death of some member of the 
family, requiring the presence of the pupil at 
home or making it impossible to send the pupil 
to school promptly. 

3. Inclement weather when sending the pu- 
pil would endanger his or her health. 

4. Imperative necessity. 

Expulsion. — The power to expel a pupil is 
usually entrusted to the superintendent or, 
where such an officer does not exist, to the 
principal, and in the rural districts to the 
school board. 

The reinstatement of a pupil is in many 
localities left to the superintendent, but more 
often in the hands of the school board or a 
committee thereof. 

The causes which may warrant expulsion con- 
sist of dishonesty, immorality, persistent dis- 
inclination to study, wilful destruction of 
school property and vicious obstruction to the 
progress of other pupils. 

Home Study. — The question of the right of 



94 NON-RESIDENTS 

the school authorities to exact home study on 
the part of the pupils has frequently led to 
bitter controversy. As a result some boards 
forbid teachers to demand any home study. 
The general rule, however, is that the lower 
grades are exempted from home study, while 
in grades from the fifth upward, it is exacted. 

The board of education of Greater New^ 
York has always adhered to the following rule : 
No home work of any kind, except spelling and 
supplementary reading, shall be assigned to the 
pupils of any primary class. No home work 
requiring more than half an hour in any day, 
except spelling and supplementary reading, 
shall be assigned to the pupils in the four 
lower grammar grades. No home work requir- 
ing more than an hour in any one day, except 
spelling and supplementary reading, shall be 
assigned to pupils in the four highest grammar 
grades. The solution of mathematical problems 
shall not be assigned for home study in any 
except the second and first grammar grades. 

Non- Residents. — The following rules are an 
adaptation of those prevailing in several me- 
dium sized cities, determining when tuition 
fees shall be paid by non-resident pupils and 
when such pupils shall be exempted from their 
payment : 

First — Under no circumstances shall a non- 
resident pupil be allowed to- attend a city school 
without the payment of tuition fees if such a 
non-resident pupil resides in one of the towns 
adjoining the city within a mile of a town 



I 



PROMOTION OF PUPILS 95 

schoolhouse, and the branches of education 
adapted to such non-resident pupil are there 
taught. 

Second — If it appears to the satisfaction of 
the board that the parent pr guardian of the 
non-resident pupil is too poor to pay tuition 
fees, or that the pupil is abandoned by his par- 
ents, and such a pupil is permanently living 
with a resident (although not formally adopted 
by such a resident), such pupil shall be ex- 
empted from payment of tuition fees Affida- 
vits of reputable citizens shall be required by 
the board to prove the poverty or lack of ability 
of the parent or guardian to pay tuition fees, 
otherwise such pupil, although permanently liv- 
ing in the city with such resident, shall be 
compelled to pay them. 

Third — -Non-resident pupils whose parents 
pay taxes in the city on property owned in the 
city shall be credited on their tuition fees with 
the amount of the state, county and city school 
taxes paid by such parent the year preceding 
the application for admission in the city schools 
of such pupils. The non-resident committee 
will require an affidavit of the parent, showing 
the amount of school tax such parent pays, and 
the original tax receipt from the city treasu;rer, 
or a certified copy thereof. 

Promotions. — The following rules regarding 
grammar school pupils prevail in many locali- 
ties: No child shall be kept over two years in 
any one grade, without a consultation with the 
superintendent. 



96 PUPILS' REPORTS 

Promotions of pupils of the first, second and 
third grades shall be made by the teachers. 

A monthly record shall be kept of each pu- 
pil's scholarship, which shall be the basis upon 
which the judgment of the teacher and super- 
intendent shall depend in deciding upon the 
fitness of the pupil for promotion. 

Promotions from the fourth to the eighth 
grades, inclusive, shall be made by the principal 
of the school and the superintendent. 

Whenever a pupil fails to perform the work 
of a grade faithfully, the teacher shall inform 
the. parent or guardian, and unless there is suf- 
ficient improvement after a trial of three 
months to warrant the continuance in the 
grade, the pupil may have the approval of the 
principal and superintendent to be dropped to 
the grade below. 

Grammar and high grade pupils have to make 
a general average of 70%, and to make not 
less than 50% on any one study, in order to 
be promoted or to graduate. 

High school pupils, and in many localities 
grammar school pupils, who have an average 
of 90% and who have not been absent more 
than ten days in a half year are excused from 
examinations for promotions. 

Reports. — Reports for pupils, grades four to 
twelve, inclusive, are made each month. They 
include (a) scholarship, (b) deportment, (c) 
attendance. Report must be signed by parent 
or guardian and returned. 



PUPILS' SELF-GOVERUMENT 97 

Suspension. — Just causes of suspension are : 
(1) Habitual absence or tardiness. (2) Vio- 
lent opposition to authority. (3) Repetition of 
any offense after notice to parent or guardian. 

(4) Habitual and determined neglect of duty. 

(5) Habitual and notorious uncleanliness of 
dress or person. (6) Use of profane or obscene 
language. (Y) Bad conduct and example tend- 
ing to the injury of the school. (8) Cutting, 
marring, defacing, injuring or destroying school 
property, such as building, furniture, books, 
fences, trees, shrubbery, etc. 

Self- Government. — The object of the system 
is to train the students in self-control and to 
exercise a good influence over good fellow 
students. 

The usual plan of government which is con- 
fined to high schools only is one "of the stu- 
dents, and for the students'' and gives each 
pupil a share in the discipline of the school. 
The school faculty does not control the order 
of the school, but the two student bodies, the 
senate, the house of tribunes, have sole charge 
of the school in this matter. The senate, the 
higher body, consists of two members of the 
faculty and two members, a boy and girl, 
chosen by ballot from each of the four classes 
of the high school proper. The senate appoints 
two tribunes, a boy and a girl, for each of the 
six periods of the school day and these tribunes, 
under the supervision of the senators, control 
directly the order of the study hall. Both sena- 
ators and tribunes must attain certain marks in 

7 



98 PUPILS' SELF-GOVERNMENT 

their studies to fill their positions. The stu- 
dents from time to time are permitted to offer 
suggestions which may serve to remedy any 
weakness that may exist in the constitution. 
The constitution provides that "each and every 
student is to conduct himself and herself in 
good order, with courtesy, and in a gentlemanly 
manner, with a view always to promoting the 
happiness and well-being of fellow students, 
and to bring honor to the name of the school." 

The pledge taken by the students is as 
follows : 

(1) We will not communicate while in the 
school building; (2) we will keep refilled posi- 
tion in our school seats; (3) we will cultivate 
a light step; (4) we will not ask for individual 
favors; (5) we will provide all writing paper in 
the morning; (6) we will make the room a place 
of quietude; (7) we will not allow others to be 
more polite to us than we are to them; (8) we 
will not make ourselves odious in the use of 
tobacco; (9) we will, on passing people on the 
street, give them half the walk; (10) we will 
not jeer at anyone on the street or off the street ; 
(11) we, the gentlemen, will tip our hats to 
the ladies; (12) we will avoid being boisterous 
whatever we may be. 

Educators are not agreed as to the efficacy of 
self-government or pupil government. While it 
has proven a success in some schools it has 
proven a failure in others. Those who favor the 
plan hold that nothing will teach the value of 
government and self-control as readily as the 



REPORTS 99 

responsibility placed upon the pnpil. The op- 
ponents hold that by teaching boys and girls 
how to govern they must first be taught to 
obey. This obedience, they hold, must be ex- 
acted by adults whom they love and respect. 

RECESS. — Recess periods of fifteen minutes 
during the forenoons and afternoons for pupils 
in the grades are so well established that noth- 
ing can be added here except a reference to the 
rules regarding them, which prevail in many 
localities. These not only make the necessary 
periods compulsory but provide that teachers 
must urge all pupils to participate in outdoor 
exercise during these periods. It devolves upon 
the teachers to see that the pupils put on over- 
garments during cold weather and to remain 
with them, especially with those of the primary 
and kindergarten grades. 

REPORTS. — Every school board should be 
ready to give the public a full report of its 
stewardship annually or at least biennially. 
This should include a statistical and financial 
report as well as a statement of policies and the 
endeavors of the administrative authorities. 

A committee of the IN'ational Education As- 
sociation some years ago formulated a uniform 
financial report for school systems which is 
applicable to nearly any city, with but minor 
changes. This report includes the following 
items : 



100 FINANCIAL REPORTS 

Valuation, 
' 1. Estimated actual value of all prop- 
erty in the city (or school dis- 
trict or corporation) $, 

2. Assessed valuation of all property in 

city (or school district or cor- 
poration) .$, 

3. Hate of school tax levied on each 

dollar of assessed valuation of 
city (or district or corporation) .$ , 

Receipts. 

4. Keceived from state apportion- 

ment or taxes $ , 

5. Received from county apportion- 

ment or taxes $. 

6. Received from city (or school dis- 

trict or corporation) taxes $. 

7. Received from fines, licenses, penal- 

ties, etc $. 

8. Received from all other sources 

except loans and bond sales 
(specify different sources) $, 

9. Received from loans $. 

10. Received from bond sales $. 

11. Total receipts, all sources $. 

Expenditures, 

12. Paid for salaries for teachers and 

supervisors $. 

13. Paid for other current expenses, 

including interest $. 

Salaries of officers $ 

Janitors $ 



FINANCIAL REPORTS 101 

Fuel and lights $ 

Text-books, including copy 

and drawing books $ 

Stationery .$ 

Other supplies for schools . $ 

Ordinary repairs to build- 
ings, etc $...... 

All other current expenses . $ 

14. Paid for sites $ 

15. Paid for additions and new build- 

ings $ 

16. Paid for permanent furnishings 

and furniture $ 

17. Paid for permanent equipment for 

manual training, science or lab- 
oratories, etc $ 

18. Paid for reference and library books.$ 

19. Paid for all permanent improve- 

ments, such as grading, paving, 
etc. (Specify different expendi- 
tures) $ 

20. Paid for interest $ 

21. Paid on principal of loans $ 

22. Paid on interest of bonded debt ... $ 

23. Total paid out, all purposes $ 

Balances, 

24. Cash on hand at beginning of year.$ 

25. Cash on hand at beginning of year 

in fund for sites and buildings 
(included in 24) $ 

26. Cash on hand at beginning of year 

in sinking fund (included in 24) .$ 



102 FINANCIAL REPORTS 

27. Warrants outstanding, beginning of 

year $ . 

28. Cash on hand at end of year $. 

29. Cash on hand at end of year in 

fund for sites and buildings 
(included in 28) $. 

30. Cash on hand at end of year in 

sinking fund (included in 28)..$, 

Other Financial Figures, 

31. Warrants outstanding at end of 

year $ , 

32. Paid current expenses, evening 

schools (included in 12 and 13).$. 

33. Paid current expenses, teachers' 

training schools (included in 12 
and 13) .$. 

34. Paid current expenses, schools for 

defectives or other special schools 
(included in 12 and 13. Specify 
different schools) $, 

35. Bonded school debt of city (or 

school district or corporation) at 
the end of year $. 

General Statistics, 

36. Population of city (or school dis- 

trict or corporation) $. 

37. Persons of school age, to 

years, inclusive, in city (or school 
district or corporation) , 

38. Number of pupils enrolled, all 

schools . 



REPORTERS 103 

39. Average number in daily member- 

ship, all schools 

40. Average number in daily attend- 

ance, all schools 

41. Average number in daily attend- 

ance, night schools (included in 

40) 

42. Average number in daily attend- 

ance, teachers' training schools 
(included in 40) 

43. Average number in daily attend- 

ance,^ teachers' training schools 
(included in 40) 

44. Average number in daily attend- 

ance, schools for defectives or 
other special schools (included in 
40. Specify different schools) 

45. Annual cost of education per pupil. 

(Sum of Nos. 12 and 13 divided 

by No. 40)... 

REPORTERS.— The following rule in rela- 
tion to newspaper men has proven most serv- 
iceable : 

Reporters of the different city papers shall be 
admitted to the meetings of the board, as long 
as the rules touching the privileges of news- 
papers and reporters are faithfully observed. 
Such reporters may make copies and take min- 
utes of papers and proceedings. But the pre- 
siding officer of the board for the time being 
may interdict the publication of any such mat- 
ter until the question of leave to publish shall 



104 SAVINGS BANKS 

have been decided by the board m session. Any 
matter directed by the board to be withheld, or 
in the absence of- any order on the subject by 
the board, then any matter directed by the pre- 
siding officer to be withheld from publication 
shall not be made public. 

SAVINGS BANK SYSTEM.— The object of 
school savings banks is ^^not the accumulation 
of money, but the inculcation of principles of 
thrift, honesty and self-responsibility, the up- 
building, through the schools, of prosperity and 
stability for home and state; the improvement 
of the organic, social and economical condi- 
tions under which we live ; the moral and finan- 
cial welfare of the nation." 

SECRET SOCIETIES. — Secret organiza- 
tions among high school students, based on the 
fraternities and sororities in the colleges, have 
been looked upon with disfavor by school 
authorities. 

A committee of the National Association of 
Secondary Schools has summarized the argu- 
ments against these societies in the following 
language. They are : 

1. Undemocratic for public institutions. 

2. A menace to school discipline. 

3. They draw a line between the rich and 
poor pupils. 

4. Breed clannishness, snobbery and a pat- 
ronizing air to non-members. 

5. Allegiance to fraternities often exceeds 
allegiance to schools. 



SCHOOL SESSIONS 105 

6. Social differences are nursed. 

7. Attention is distracted from school work. 

8. Teachers, parents and school men oppose 
them. 

9. They lead to extravagance and dissipa- 
tion. 

10. School honors are monopolized by society 
men through unjust combinations, thus de- 
stroying opportunities for efficiency. 

11. They discourage literary, art and sci- 
ence societies. 

12. Form a habit of leaving home. 

13. Schools become clubhouses for boys and 
girls, not seats of learning. 

The Supreme Court of the state of Washing- 
ton has held that school boards have authority 
to deny to those pupils belonging to a secret 
fraternity contrary to the rules of the school, 
participation in athletic, literary, military and 
similar school organizations, constituting no 
part of the school work, though the meetings of 
the fraternity are held at the homes of the 
members after school hours, and with parental 
consent. 

In Indiana, Kansas, California and Minne- 
sota high school students are forbidden by 
state law to join secret societies. 

SESSIONS. — The school year as recognized 
in the cities consists of ten months, of 20 days 
each; 5 hours each day. This makes 40 weeks, 
200 school days or 1,000 hours for the year. 

The five hours spent at school cover usually 



.106 STORM SIGNALS 

from 9 to 11:45 A. M. and from 1 to 3:45 
P. M., making a 15 minute allowance each 
half day for recess. 

Medical authorities usually recommend a long 
noon period, holding that mental rest, a warm 
meal and the open air walk to and from the 
school are absolutely necessary to the pupil's 
physical welfare. 

STORM SIGNALS.— In a number of school 
districts whenever it is deemed wise to close 
the schools for the day on account of very 
inclement weather, storm signals are sounded 
to give pupils and parents notice that school 
work is suspended for the day or half day, as 
the case may be. A bell is used for this pur- 
pose, although in certain towns the use of 
steam whistles of factories located in the vicin- 
ity of the school is provided for. The storm 
signals are given at Y:45 o'clock and at 11 
o'clock in the morning. 

SUBSCRIPTIONS. — Boards usually forbid 
all collections, subscriptions or contributions 
from the pupils in the schools. Nor are em- 
ployes of the board allowed to receive any pres- 
ents obtained by subscription of the pupils. (See 
Contributions.) 

SUPERINTENDENTS. Qualifications.— The 

■first test of a school board's efficiency lies in 
the selection of a superintendent, for on a 
good superintendent, more than any other fac- 
tor, depends the successful administration of a 



THE SUPERINTENDENT 107 

school system. A rare combination of per- 
sonal qualifications is required for a high class 
superintendent. "He must be a scholar and 
bo a thorough student of educational prob- 
lems. He must be a man of power; a real 
leader, who inspires his teachers. He must be 
a man of the highest executive capacity, with 
the ability to originate and carry out his ideas. 
He must be a man with the perseverance to 
carry out the work necessary to lift the school 
system to the highest rank.'' With these qual- 
ifications he must combine tact and kindliness, 
and above all, common sense. 

Selection. — One of two general methods are 
usually employed by school boards in selecting 
a superintendent. The first is to make known 
the fact that the position is open and choose 
from the applicants the one who may possess 
the highest scholarship and executive ability 
combined with the greatest experience. The 
other plan is to seek the best man in a similar 
administrative position, wherever he may be 
found, and offer him an adequate inducement 
to come. The latter plan will bring the best 
results and is in use by the most progressive 
boards. In some localities a new superintendent 
is elected for a year, on trial; after which his 
term is fixed at two or more years, according to 
the rules of the board. 

Duties. — As the executive officer of the school 
board the superintendent has general super- 
vision of all the schools of the district (mu- 
nicipality), their organization, classification. 



108 DUTIES OF SUPERINTENDENTS 

course of study, and methods of management 
and instruction. Generally he is expected to 
devote himself exclusively to the duties of the 
office and the direction of all employes con- 
nected with the school is committed to his care. 

The superintendent is expected to acquaint 
himself with the latest thought on the philos- 
ophy and art of teaching the best methods pur- 
sued in the administration and supervision of 
other school systems, that he may make intelli- 
gent comparisons and suggest improvements. 

He should visit each school as often as prac- 
ticable, note the character of instruction given 
£».nd the spirit of the work and deportment of 
principals, teachers and pupils, and make such 
suggestions and render such aid to each as will 
promote the welfare of the school. 

The superintendent should meet the teachers 
and principals as often as he deems necessary 
for the purpose of discussing educational top- 
ics, methods of management and instruction. 
In some cities he is required to lay out a course 
of professional reading for study and apply such 
tests as may be proper to ascertain the char- 
acter of this work. 

The superintendent should be required to see 
that ^ the teachers and principals are supplied 
with the necessary blanks for making their 
reports, and shall see that these are properly 
filed with him. From the report submitted he 
will be required to make monthly and annual 
reports to the board of education. 

The superintendent should have the power 



DUTIES OF SUPERINTENDENTS 109 

of initiative in the selection of text books and 
supplementary, reference, and library books. 
The final adoption or rejection of a book should 
remain with the board. The same may be said 
of supplies, apparatus and furniture. 

The superintendent should nominate teach- 
ers, principals, truant officers and assistant su- 
perintendents. He should have the power to 
reassign teachers or principals in accordance 
with the best needs of the schools. He will 
keep a record of the work of principals and 
teachers to determine their merit or fitness for 
reappointment and increase of salary. He 
should be the judge of all excuses for absence 
£)nd should recommend leaves of absence with 
or without pay. 

The superintendent should be entrusted with 
the enforcement of the compulsory education 
law. He should nominate and supervise the 
attendance officers and should have the power 
to request their removal, if incompetent. 

As chief organizer of the school the superin- 
tendent should recommend to the board the 
establishment of schools, kindergartens and 
special features in the schools. He should be 
given power to increase or decrease the number 
of classes in the schools. He should provide 
all facilities for the schools. 

The superintendent should be charged with 
the duty of inspecting school buildings and 
grounds to determine their healthful condition, 
whether they fulfill the best purposes of in- 
struction with the special view of recommend- 



110 SCHOOL SWEEPING 

ing improvements to existing buildings or 
needed additions. 

The superintendent should be required to be 
present at all meetings of the board and all 
meetings of committees which may require his 
assistance. He should be privileged to speak 
on any and all questions, but not vote. 

The superintendent should have regular, 
fixed office hours and should be given compe- 
tent clerical assistance. 

Term. — The average length of term for su- 
perintendents is about two years. In small 
cities and towns it is often but one year. The 
tendency is to ^x the time at three years. 
Some authorities hold that the superintendent 
and teachers should have indefinite terms dur- 
ing good behavior, and while in theory this 
may seem ideal, in actual practice it has not 
been found productive of good results. A three 
or four year term will give an official sufficient 
security to carry out his ideas for improving 
the schools. On the other hand, this length of 
term is short enough to permit changes in case 
the incumbent is not successful. 

SWEEPING. — Schoolroom dust is a clearing 
house for germs and its thorough removal is 
one of the most 'important features of school 
hygiene. Extensive experiments have shown 
that kerosene or coal oil applied to the fiber or 
bristles of a floor brush is most efficient for this 
purpose. Brushes are now made with a reser- 
voir for automatically moistening the fiber, 



SCHOOL TAXATION 111 

which wipe up the dust with the rapidity of 
ordinary sweeping, without causing it to cir- 
culate through the room. Scientific tests have 
demonstrated that this method reduces dust 
more than 90%, as compared to ordinary dry 
brush sweeping. It is in extensive use and its 
superiority over old methods thoroughly estab- 
lished. 

TRADE SCHOOLS.— The industrial educa- 
tion movement is in its infancy in the United 
States. While it is recognized that education 
should fit for practical use in life, the idea that 
the development should be symmetrical has re- 
tarded the influence of trade instruction. 

TAXATION. State.— Although every state 
derives some income from permanent funds, 
invested for the schools, the chief revenues are 
from taxes. This tax is levied equally upon 
all the taxable property of the state and is dis- 
tributed according to a fixed plan. It is gen- 
erally held that the state should not supply 
more than one-half of the actual amount used 
in running the schools of a given district. 
The state's portion should form the nucleus of 
the revenues and the remainder should come 
from a local levy. In many states special aid 
is provided for poor districts with good results. 

Local. — ^Local taxation has proven to be one 
of the best stimuli for arousing and preserving 
local interest in the schools, and for securing 
personal concern of the taxpayers in the eco- 
nomical expenditure of the school funds. In 



112 DISTRIBUTION OF TAXES 

states where the county is the civil unit for 
local taxation it should also be the unit for the 
schools. Where the township is the unit for 
levying and disbursing local taxes, it should 
apply. Of course, cities form separate units 
for school taxation. 

Distribution. — The equitable distribution of 
the school funds of the state forms one of the 
unsolved problems in school administration. 
One of two general plans, or a combination of 
both, is utilized in every state and none can be 
said to be absolutely just. 

The "Census" plan provides for a per capita? 
distribution of the state funds according to the 
number of children of school age within a 
given district. As has frequently been pointed 
out, this method will act injustly toward small 
districts. An improvement of the plan makes 
the actual enrollment of children in the schools 
the basis. This is likely to increase the enroll- 
ment and secure a strict observance of the com- 
pulsory attendance laws. 

The "Fixed Sum" plan provides for the dis- 
tribution of a certain amount to each district; 
in some states for each teacher. The plan tends 
to increase the number of districts or teachers 
out of all proportion. Wise statutory limita- 
tion may to a degree obviate this fault. 

City. — How much power the school board of 
a municipality should have for levying taxes 
for the support of the schools is a vexed ques- 
tion. Undoubtedly, ideal schools might be pro- 
vided if the school authorities could procure 



TEACHERS 118 

whatever amount they thought necessary. And 
still, it does not seem wise that the taxing 
power of a municipality be divided; it means 
divided responsibility, and is likely to raise the 
school taxes to a point out of all proportion to 
the remaining interests of a city. 

There are several methods in vogue for fixing 
the school tax levy. One is to allow the school 
board to recommend the amount it desires and 
confer upon the city council the power to act. 
Many of the disadvantages of this plan can be 
obviated if a mill rate sufficient to insure an 
adequate amount for conducting the schools, 
is fixed by statute, beyond which the city 
council cannot go. Another plan often em- 
ployed has already been alluded to above. 

TEACHERS. Agencies.— The Teachers' bu- 
reau has a legitimate place as a business enter- 
prise. It was called into life because there 
existed a demand for its services. Both school 
boards and teachers have been benefited by its 
existence. It has served as the clearing house 
for applicants and vacancies. Honorable men 
and women are engaged in conducting these 
bureaus and the cause of education has gained 
through their labors. 

The agency or bureau registers the names of 
teachers who are seeking positions, keeping also 
a careful record of their history, qualifications, 
testimonials, etc. They either notify teachers 
of vacancies, or else make direct recommenda- 
tions of their clients where such vacancies 

exist. 
8 



114 APPOINTMENT,^ 

A fee of one or two dollars is exacted of the 
teacher who registers with a bureau and a com- 
mission of from 5% to 10% of the first year's 
salary is paid after the position is secured. 

Amusements. — In no other set of rules have 
the idiosyncracies of school administrative la- 
bors been involved more readily than in those 
restricting the amusements of teachers. In 
some smaller communities where the teachers 
stand more prominently before the public eye, 
the school authorities have, in response to local 
sentiment, adopted restrictive measures. In 
many instances these measures have been solely 
prompted for the best interests of the schools, 
while in others an overzealous and narrow 
spirit on the part of a dominant element has 
brought them into life. 

The rules forbid the teacher from attending 
dances, sociables and card parties, and occa- 
sionally a board forgets itself so far as to for- 
bid courting. Modifications are made in locali- 
ties by exempting Friday, Saturday and Sunday 
evenings from the restriction. 

Appointments. — Xo duty performed by a 
school board is of more far reaching impor- 
tance than the appointment of teachers. In 
rural school districts this duty is performed by 
the board without the intervention of anyone 
save the certification and in some instances ap- 
proval of by the county superintendent or com- 
missioner. In districts where three or more 
teachers are employed the advice of the prin- 
cipal or superintendent is sought. 



APPOINTMENTS 115 

In the selection, the professional, moral and 
physical equipment of the applicant should be 
considered. No person who is not physically 
and morally sound should be appointed. When 
experienced teachers are not obtainable those 
with professional training should be preferred. 
The pressure of personal friends in behalf of 
an applicant should not enter into consideration 
at all in the question of appointment. Ability 
and fitness alone should be the conditions for 
consideration. 

Many school boards, in both rural and city 
districts, now demand normal school graduates. 
Where the school system is large enough to war- 
rant the employment of a superintendent or a 
principal the latter is entrusted with the selec- 
tion of the teachers, subject to the approval of 
the board. It is here held that if the superin- 
tendent is to be held responsible for the effi- 
ciency of the schools he must have a voice in 
the selection of the teachers. 

"In judging the fitness of a teacher as to 
health, morals or temperament," the authorities 
hold, "there is safety in counsel. The business 
man's intelligence is essential to the best man- 
agement of public affairs, even in matters 
purely educational. His contact with the world 
has revealed to him some facts regarding edu- 
cation and its value, and though he may have 
his own personal bias or prejudice, that he 
would have to say after a thorough visitation of 
schools would be practicable, to the point, and 
free from technicalities." 



116 TEACHERS' AUTHORITY 

Authority. — A leading state superintendent, 
in a ruling regarding a teacher's authority 
over pupils on their way to and from school, 
says : "The teacher stands in the place of the 
parent at school and has the same jurisdiction 
over the conduct of the pupils there that the 
parent has at home. 

"It seems to be a simple deduction from this 
principle that the teacher has the authority also 
over the pupils at all time when they are 
thrown together in the consequence of attend- 
ing school, and it would be very disastrous to 
school discipline if the teachers were denied a 
reasonable control over the action of pupils on 
the way to and from the schoolhouse. This 
right, therefore, seems to belong to the teacher 
by the implication without any express state- 
ment of the law to that effect.'' This conten- 
tion is in accordance with a decision rendered 
by the Supreme Court of Michigan. 

Certificates. — The following rules governing 
the employment and licensing of teachers pre- 
vail in a number of cities: 

1. All teachers in the high school may be 
granted certificates upon presenting to the board 
of education evidence that they are graduates 
from some recognized college or normal school, 
or that they hold state certificates, or that they 
possess qualifications which under law are 
equivalent to the above. 

2. All teachers in the primary and grammar 
grades must be graduates from some recognized 

college or normal school or some accredited high 



TEACHERS' CONTRACTS 117 

school approved by board of education, or must 
satisfy the board by examination that they pos- 
sess qualifications which will fit them equally 
v/ell for the work they will be required to do. 

3. Successful experience of one to three 
years' teaching, together with the evidence of 
growth along professional lines, will be consid- 
ered sufficient ground for the renewal of cer- 
tificates, provided written application be made 
to the board therefor, stating the educational 
journals and books read, the teachers' associa- 
tions, institutes or summer schools' attended and 
any other work attempted to strengthen the pro- 
fessional life of the teacher. The board of edu- 
cation may also require the teachers to present 
a record of some education work or a thesis 
upon some educational topic before such 
renewal. 

4. The examination of all first applicants 
upon all subjects which they are required to 
teach and the science and art of teaching shall 
take place when application for the place is 
made. All examinations shall take place at the 
convenience of the board of education by a 
committee appointed by them for that purpose. 

5. Certificates shall be granted for a period 
not exceeding five years. 

Contracts.— This subject touches a practical 
phase in school administration. From the 
school board's point of view it will bear discus- 
sion which may lead to profitable results to both 
boards and teachers. There is no need of dis- 
guising the fact that breaches of contract are 



118 TEACHERS' CONTRACTS 

more largely chargeable to the teaching forces 
than to boards. This may be accounted for, 
primarily, in the fact that the individual 
teacher has more at stake in a contract than the 
individual school board member. Again, it may 
be said that the board, in case of a vacancy in 
the teaching force, can find a teacher more 
readily than can the teacher find an appoint- 
ment. 

But a contract is a contract. A teacher hav- 
ing accepted an appointment is morally and 
legally bound to fill the engagement. Where a 
contract, either verbal or written, is entered 
into, the obligation is mutual and conclusive. 

A school board that ignores a contract made 
with a teacher can be held for the salary in- 
volved. The courts invariably uphold the 
teacher where competency and faithful service 
are proven. Teachers as a rule avail themselves 
of their rights in this direction, and, in case of 
unfair dismissal, secure the salary for the term 
covered by the contract. 

It is seldom, however, that a school board 
brings an action against a teacher who breaks a 
contract, even where the conduct of the teacher 
embarrasses the board. The reasons are obvious 
and various. The teacher has either departed 
for distant points, is financially irresponsible, 
etc., or the board deems it cheaper to hire an- 
other teacher than to begin a lawsuit. 

It is not pretentious to say that the average 
board is disposed to be fair. If a teacher, after 
having accepted an appointment in one school 



DISMISSAL OF TEACHERS 119 

system, finds a better position in another school 
system, a release can usually be secured. The 
school board member seldom cares to stand 
between a teacher and his or her material 
progress. 

Debts. — All employes of the board are ex- 
pected to pay promptly their obligations for 
services rendered them. Failure to do so should 
be sufficient warrant for their dismissal after 
an investigation to verify the facts in each 
particular case. 

Discipline. — Teachers who insult or terrorize 
their pupils by the constant or frequent use of 
provoking, irritating, snappish language are 
subject to severe discipline. The children are 
their pupils, not their menials; for the time 
being their subjects, not their slaves. 

One of the first essentials in the qualification 
of a teacher is the ability to maintain order and 
place the class in a teachable condition through 
the practice of kindness, firmness and a whole- 
some enthusiasm. 

Dismissals. — There are school systems in 
which the teachers hold their positions during 
the pleasure of the board. The rules provide, 
however, that teachers who shall have served for 
three consecutive years shall not be subject to 
removal, except for some misconduct or inca- 
pacity as the board may deem a disqualification. 

It is also provided that in order to remove a 
teacher, charges must be made in writing, a 
duplicate of which is furnished the teacher 



120 DISMISSAL OF TEACHERS 

against whom the charges are made The 
teacher receives a hearing before the committee 
on qualifications and upon the conclusion of 
this hearing the committee reports its finding 
to the board, which makes the final disposition 
of the case. 

An Indiana writer on this subject very aptly 
says: When a school board decides that the 
services of the teacher or superintendent are no 
longer required it should let the teacher know 
the fact so that he can leave the service in such 
a way as not to suffer humiliation. It is add- 
ing insult to injury to allow a teacher or super- 
intendent to work up to the end of the year, 
and then, without any warning, drop him. If 
a teacher is not giving satisfaction it is the 
duty of the board to frankly tell him so and 
state in what regard he is failing, and this 
should be done in time for the fault to be cor- 
rected if the teacher is capable of making the 
desired improvement. 

There should be a spirit of fairness on both 
the part of the board and the teachers. School 
boards should not dismiss teachers without good 
cause and after having given due notice; 
neither should teachers seek and accept two or 
more appointments when they can fill but one. 

A teacher may be punished by fine, suspen- 
sion or dismissal, after trial before the board of 
education or a committee of its body, under 
charges for one of four offenses : (1) gross mis- 
conduct; (2) insubordination; (3) neglect of 
duty; (4) general inefficiency; (5) in some 



ELIGIBILITY 121 

localities, the good of the service. But no 
teacher should be removed or dismissed, except 
after trial, under specific charges. 

Eligibility. — To be eligible for positions in 
the grades teachers must (a) possess the re- 
quired legal certificates, or (b) be graduates of 
a college or normal school in good standing, or 
(c) hold a high school diploma (or equivalent) 
with two to five years' experience in rural school 
work. 

Candidates for high school positions must be 
(a) graduates of a recognized college or uni- 
versity, or (b) of a recognized normal school or 
(c) have experience in the department of school 
work for which they apply. A certificate of 
legal grade is also required. 

Examinations. — Teachers' examinations are 
prepared and papers examined and graded by 
the state superintendent in twelve states; pre- 
pared by state department and examined by 
local authorities in twenty-four states. Exam- 
inations are prepared and papers examined and 
graded by county or other local authorities in 
ten states. City school boards are usually au- 
thorized to prepare and conduct examinations 
without the supervision of the state authorities. 

Health. — In a number of cities teachers ap- 
plying for appointments must undergo medical 
examination, present certificates from reputable 
physicians proving good health. 

A number of boards rule that applicants of 
both sexes seeking appointment, after medical 



122 MARRIED TEACHERS 

examinations, be excluded for the following 
causes : Pulmonary tuberculosis ; marked phy- 
sical deformity of any kind; pronounced neu- 
rasthenia, or nervous exhaustion; irremediable 
defects in sight or hearing; such organic dis- 
orders or such structural or nutritional de- 
ficiencies as may prevent the proper care and 
control of the pupils. 

Leave of Absence. — When death occurs in 
the immediate family of any teacher, such 
teacher should be entitled to leave of absence 
for four days without loss of salary. A ques- 
tion has arisen over the interpretation of "im- 
mediate family." Some teachers have included 
uncles, grandfathers, mother-in-law, etc. The 
boards have allowed it to mean only fathers, 
mothers, brothers, sisters, and children. Rela- 
tives making their home with the teacher are 
usually included. 

Any teacher who, on account of personal ill- 
ness, is absent from school for a period not ex- 
ceeding one month, should receive during such 
absence the regular salary less the amount of a 
substitute's pay. 

Married.— Those who believe that a married 
woman should not teach urge mainly the follow- 
ing reasons: 

That a married teacher owes a duty to her 
family, and that, therefore, her presence is de- 
manded at home and with her own children. 
That family cares detract from the interests in 
her schoolroom labors. That by holding a posi- 



MARRIED TEACHERS 123 

tion as a teacher she will deprive some single 
person from means of support. That common 
avarice or a hankering for dress and finery 
rather than love for the work prompts her to 
teach. That a married woman should rely only 
upon her husband for support. That there 
should be but one bread winner between hus- 
band and wife. That there are times in a 
married woman's life when ordinary delicacy 
forbids her presence in the schoolroom. 

The opponents of rules prohibiting married 
women from teaching hold that fitness and char- 
acter alone determine the employment of teach- 
ers, married or single. That a mother is a 
teacher by natural law. That a married woman 
has the same rights as her single sister to earn 
her living. That the seal of disfavor should not 
be stamped upon marriage. That a prohibitory 
measure works discriminations and hardships. 
That it lessens personal freedom and free com- 
petition. That it encourages old maidism. 
That such legislation is special and specious. 

Frequently a married woman holds a lucra- 
tive position in the public schools whose hus- 
band receives a salary great enough to main- 
tain both in comparative comfort. The injus- 
tice of such double employment of husband and 
wife is felt by the young unmarried woman 
who is shut out of the schools to give place to 
the married woman. A married woman who 
has an able bodied husband to provide for her 
should strive to become what nature intended 
her to be, a companion to her husband, a 



124 NON-RESIDENT TEACHERS 

mother to her children, and the queen of her 
home. 

The rules and contracts of many school 
boards in the employment of teachers provide 
that the marriage of a woman teacher shall 
operate as a resignation of her position. 

Meetings. — ^Periodical meetings of all the 
teachers of a city or town for the discussion of 
school problems are productive of much good 
and constitute one of the means for effective 
supervision. As a rule a general meeting is 
held at the opening of the school year under 
the guidance of the superintendent. Meetings 
for special instruction in drawing, music, pen- 
manship are called from time to time by the 
supervisors of these subjects. 

The principals hold meetings of their teach- 
ers when advisable to consider methods in dis- 
cipline and instruction. School board regula- 
tions require that no meeting of teachers shall 
take place during school hours. 

Non-Residents. — The following expresses the 
position of some boards on the subject of non- 
resident teachers : No person is employed by 
the board who is not a legal resident of the city 
or who does not, after appointment, declare his 
or her intention in writing, to the board, to 
become such without delay; provided that, upon 
application, said person may be exempted from 
the provisions of this rule by a majority of the 
vote of the board. 

Outside Occupations. — It is frequently found 



PERSONAL APPEARANCE 125 

that teachers, more particularly male teachers, 
are engaged in other occupations after school 
hours. Some solicit insurance, deal in real 
estate or serve in clerical capacities. 

While school boards in larger cities have 
adopted rules forbidding teachers to engage in 
other occupations, the general consensus of 
opinion has been that the board has no right 
to interfere. It is held that, if the occupation 
does not lower the character of the teacher in 
the eyes of the pupils or parents, incapacitate 
him, or in any way lessen his value as a teacher, 
the board has no right to meddle. 

Personal Appearance. — ^^It is a duty of the 
first importance," says an authority, "on the 
part of teachers to be models in personal ap- 
pearance and in conduct for the pupils under 
their care. They are especially enjoined to 
avail themselves of every opportunity to incul- 
cate neatness, promptness, politeness, cheerful- 
ness, truthfulness, patriotism, and all the vir- 
tues which contribute to the effectiveness of the 
school, the good order of society, and the safety 
of American citizenship." 

Politics. — The schoolmaster has certain rights 
which he may or may not exercise. Some 
board members hold that outside of school hours 
the schoolmaster's time is his own. He may 
teach private classes or follow commercial pur- 
suits, saw wood or make political speeches. In 
fact, he may do exactly what other citizens do, 
so long as he fulfills his schoolroom duties. 



126 TEACHERS' RATING 

This idea^ however, is vigorously combated. 
It is held that the teacher holds a relation to 
society which precludes active partisanship, that 
his position is a public one and of a nature that 
renders political activity ^^pernicious." 

Private Instruction. — In some school systems 
a rule prevails forbidding teachers from giving 
private instructions to pupils for pay. The 
rule has grown out of the fact that teachers 
have neglected their pupils in order to recruit 
from them classes for private instruction. 

Professional Training. — An authority says: 
"The idea is prevalent that all that is required 
to make a good teacher is good health, good 
character and a fair education. It must be 
admitted that these are essential qualities, but 
until some special training is universally de- 
manded teaching will never take its place 
among the professions." Just as the lawyer, the 
physician and the clergyman must have special 
training, so should the teacher after receiving a 
liberal education in general branches, secure a 
special training in the art of teaching. 

Rating. — Rules on this subject usually pro- 
vide that the superintendent or principal at the 
close of every semester report on the qualifica- 
tion of teachers. These reports are to state 
whether the teacher rendered excellent, good, 
medium or poor service during the preceding 
school year. The members of the board and the 
teachers have access to this data, which is con- 



TEACHERS' TESTIMONIALS 127 

sidered confidential so far as the press and the 
public are concerned. 

Resignations. — The resignation of a teacher 
always causes embarrassment, and is a serious 
hindrance to the work of the class. The rules 
of school boards vary greatly on this subject. 
Some require two weeks, others two months; 
the general average is one month. 

Substitutes. — These are usually young teach- 
ers who are waiting for appointments to regular 
positions in the teaching corps. Most boards 
hire them by the day, paying from $1.50 to $3 
for each day of actual service. In a few cities 
a small compensation is allowed for reporting 
to the superintendent every morning. The 
latest plan is to employ a substitute teacher for 
each large building or group of small buildings 
and pay her a regular monthly salary accord- 
ing to her experience. When not actually en- 
gaged in substituting this teacher goes from 
class to class, supplementing the work of the 
regular grade teacher, and giving personal aid 
to the backward pupils. 

Testimonials. — No uniform practice in grant- 
ing recommendations to teachers has as yet 
been adopted. While many school officials are 
careful and conscientious in what they state 
regarding the character and efficiency of a 
teacher, there are those who write out recom- 
mendations in such general terms as to mean 
anything and nothing. Recommendations in 
order to be serviceable should be free from com- 



128 TELEPHOl^ES 

plimentary expressions and general statements, 
and should embody information on the follow- 
ing points : 1st, scholarship ; 2d, personality and 
discipline ; 3d, teaching ability ; 4th, popularity ; 
5th, general health; 6th, character. 

In school districts where no superintendent 
or principal is employed the recommendations 
should be signed by the whole board. They 
should be signed by the superintendent or prin- 
cipal where such are employed. 

Visiting. — Prof William J. Milne says: 
"Boards of education should require teachers to 
visit at other schools. The school teachers can- 
not keep up to the desired standard by always 
looking on their own work. In order to absorb 
ideas they must go to the schoolrooms of others, 
and the system of having them report on their 
visits is useful.'^ 

To this may be added the opinion of Prof. J. 
N. "Wilkinson, who says : "The teachers of any 
city should not only come in contact with the 
variety of ideas in the schools of their own sys- 
tem, but with the best thought of their fellows 
in other cities as well as the best thought of 
educational conventions.'^ 

Most school boards require every teacher to 
spend one or two days each semester visiting 
schools. In some places the visit is directed by 
the principal or superintendent. 

TELEPHONES.— The use of the telephone 
in all school buildings must be restricted to the 
members of the board and the employes, who 



TEXT-BOOKS 129 

shall authorize its use to others only in case of 
necessity. During school hours, any message 
intended for any employe of the board should 
be communicated through the superintendent or 
the principal of the building to which the mes- 
sage is to be sent. Communications to pupils 
must be sent through the principal of the build- 
ing, and no child should be excused on a tele- 
phone message, except in cases of real necessity. 
No teacher should be allowed to use the tele- 
phone during school hours, except in cases of 
real necessity. 

TEXT-BOOKS. Their Purposes.— An emi- 
nent educator sums up the purpose of text-books 
as follows: 

"(1) to aid the teacher, by affording to the 
pupils independent sources of information and 
instruments of study; (2) to aid the pupil in 
acquiring habits of self-reliance in study; and 
(3) to enable the pupil to learn how to use 
books as a means of self-culture. A good text- 
book should be clear in language and style; 
should be divided into topics well arranged, and 
should be adapted to the pupil. 

^^In a schoolroom text-books are used (1) to 
give information; (2) to secure systematic 
work; (3) to employ the time and energies of 
the pupils ; (4) to aid the teacher. 

^^The poorest book is better than none at all, 
since it furnishes something like a definite 
guide for both pupil and teacher. It outlines, 
at least, a definite course of procedure. Text- 

9 



130 FREE BOOKS 

books are the teacher's tools in trade. Like 
other tools, they are undergoing constant im- 
provement. Compare the readers, arithmetics, 
geographies, etc., of today with those of fifty, 
yes, even ten years ago and note the improve- 
ments." 

Adoption. — Text-books are generally adopted 
by school boards with, and rarely without, the 
advice or approval of the professional factors. 
The judgment of the best minds is, that, while 
not every book which the superintendent or 
principal recommends need necessarily be 
adopted, but no text-book should be adopted 
which cannot be recommended by them. 

Text-books are usually adopted for a period 
not to exceed 'Q.ve years. In some states the 
adoptions are left to the several school districts, 
while in others a State Text-Book Commission 
selects a list of books to be used by all districts. 
In the latter case, however, the large cities 
operating under charter are exempt from the 
operation of the law. Again, county uniformity 
prevails in some states. 

Free Text-Books. — An authority recounts the 
chief arguments against free text -books: 

1. That free text-books cause an injustice to 
those not patronizing the public schools by mak- 
ing them pay for what they do not use. 

2. That they are unnecessary except for in- 
digent pupils. 

3. That it increases the cost of schools. 

4. That it makes more work for the teacher. 



FREE BOOKS 131 

5. That some people desire to preserve the 
books used in their school days. 

6. That it will increase the danger of spread- 
ing contagious diseases. 

7. That it smacks of paternalism. 
Arguments for Free Text-Books. — 

1. There are twenty-four states using free 
text-books in some form, and no place using 
them has ever returned to the old plan. 

2. The cost is greatly reduced, since the 
books can be bought cheaper. 

3. All pupils are supplied with the books and 
necessary material the first morning of school, 
effecting a saving in time. 

4. The attendance is greatly increased. 

5. By the experience of schools using free 
text-books, the books are shown to last longer 
and to be kept in better condition, and they are 
worn out at school and do not rust out at home 
on the shelf. 

6. No pupil is hindered from buying his 
own books if he wishes to own them. 

7. Fresh and modern books may be secured. 
Under private ownership the time for change is 
never opportune. 

8. Better gradation and classification, since 
all pupils would have the same text. 

9. It prolongs the school life of many pupils, 
for the increased price of high school books 
often hinder their attendance. 

10. It banishes the obnoxious distinctions 
between those that can and those that cannot 
afford to buy their own books, which often 



132 TOILET ROOMS 

arises under the law providing free text-books 
for indigent children. 

11. Pupils transferred from one grade to 
another during the year would not be obliged 
to buy new books. 

12. Contagious diseases are less apt to be 
carried into school, for the free texts would be 
disinfected and kept clean. 

Supplementary Reading. — As implied by its 
name a supplementary book is intended to sup- 
plement the work of the regular text-book. Its 
value is generally recognized in that it livens 
a dry subject, amplifies the information and 
enhances the interest of the pupils. 

TOILET ROOMS. — Perfection in water 
works systems has made the placing of toilet 
rooms on each floor of the modern school not 
only a possibility but a reality. Thus many of 
the difficulties encountered in confining these 
to basements in excluding them entirely from 
the building are obviated. The importance of 
v/arm toilet rooms, which are well lighted and 
ventilated beyond the suggestion of an obnox- 
ious odor, has been appreciated and the remedy 
supplied. 

Closets or Latrines. — These should be made 
of iron, preferably a range system, flushing at 
adjustable intervals. The proportion com- 
monly accepted is one closet to every twenty- 
five boys and one to every fifteen girls. The 
floor of the entire closet should be asphalt. 
The ventilation system should be entirely sep- 



TRANSPORTATION 133 

arate from that used in connection with the 
rest of the school. Thus only can the danger 
of reversing drafts be avoided. 

Urinals. — Slate and hard asphalt are the only 
materials which should be used in constructing 
urinals. All absorbent materials mu.st give way 
to the impervious. Proper slants must be pro- 
vided with washes of oil or water constantly 
flushing the portions affected. 

Dry Closets. — With a satisfactory system of 
ventilation and a janitor who understands the 
burning of the excreta, very good results can 
be attained by the dry closet. Here, too, how- 
ever, the ventilation must be separate from the 
system which supplies the building. 

TRANSPORTATION. Pupils.— The trans- 
portation of pupils is one of the important 
features of the consolidation of rural schools. 
Where a centrally located graded school takes 
the place of a number of small schools the cus- 
tom, in accordance with recent movements 
towards the improvement of the rural school 
system, the pupils are conveyed at the public's 
expense to and from school. The purpose of 
this movement is to afford the children the 
advantages of a full graded school with all 
modern equipments, etc. 

In cities school boards frequently provide for 
a nominal street car fare for children who 
must go long distances to and from school. 
(See Centralization.) 



134 TRUANCY 

TRUANCY. The trxiant boy and girl has 
been discussed at great length. The solutions 
offered have been varied, both in detail of exe- 
cution and in the final degrees of success. All 
discussions and solutions are agreed on one 
point, namely, that lack of interest on the part 
of the pupil in the school and its life, is the 
fundamental cause for truancy. 

The truant school has been one solution of- 
fered for the difficulty. California, Colorado, 
Illinois, Iowa, Massachusetts, Michigan, Min- 
nesota, Nebraska, New Jersey, New York, 
Pennsylvania, Utah, and West Virginia pro- 
vide for their establishment by state law. These, 
in connection with a carefully organized juve- 
nile court, have been productive of much good. 

During the recent meeting of the National 
Conference on Truancy, called by the Chicago 
board of education, the following recommen- 
dations and suggestions were offered as cures: 

Increase in the number of truant and proba- 
tion officers. 

Installation of telephones in all schools of 
the city, so that the principal will be enabled 
to keep in touch with the offices of the board 
of education. 

Establishment of a transfer system between 
public and parochial schools. 

Establishment of a system by which princi- 
pals will know each day the exact whereabouts 
of each child in his district. 

Abolition of the school board rule which per- 



CURE OF TRUANCY 135 

mits a child to be suspended from school for 
thirty days. Maximum period of suspension 
to be five days. 

Employment of school teachers to take the 
school census. Enumeration to be made es- 
pecially during the summer. 

Abolition of suspension for incorrigibility. 
Child to be sent to parental school, if neces- 
sary, but never turned upon the street. 

Establishment of school meals to overcome 
truancy resulting from stupidity, which in turn 
is the result of malnutrition. 

Special rooms for foreign children whose 
unfamiliarity with the language makes it diffi- 
cult to keep up with the work of others. 

Establishment of more school baths. 

More ungraded classrooms. 

Establishment of a corps of visiting nurses. 

More playgrounds, directed play and gym- 
nastics. 

Holding of parental meetings to keep par- 
ents interested in the work of the schools. 

Reduction of classes to thirty-five in a room. 

Changes in curriculum such as will make 
school life seem of greater value to the child 
commercially. 

More school work which will interest chil- 
dren, such as more manual training, more con- 
struction work, more school gardens, and more 
science work with excursions. 

Discussions with experienced teachers as to 



136 TUITION 

methods of treating tardiness and absence of 
pupils. 

Truant Officer. — The effective enforcement of 
compulsory attendance laws requires the serv- 
ices of truant or attendance officers. These re- 
port daily at school headquarters to learn names 
of pupils out of school, trace all cases pre- 
sented for investigation, and report. Where 
pupil cannot be returned, they are usually au- 
thorized to prosecute. A monthly report is 
made to the board on the number of cases 
investigated and the results obtained. 

TUITION. — It is the custom of most school 
boards to charge non-residents with a tuition 
fee. In most instances this fee is based upon 
the actual pro rata cost per pupil, while in 
exceptional cases the fee is raised in order to 
limit the attendance consistent with the school 
capacity. In Ohio, Wisconsin, New York, etc., 
and other states the non-resident fee is charged 
against the district in which the pupil resides. 
This applies more particularly to students com- 
ing from districts where no high schools are 
maintained. 

In some localities parents residing outside of 
the city or village limits are credited with the 
amount of taxes they pay said city or village 
on the non-resident fee of their children. 

The law designates as the legal home of the 
child where its parents or legal guardian resides 
and does not recognize temporary adoptions 



VACATION SCHOOLS 137 

made for the purpose of evading the stipulated 
non-resident tuition fee. 

The rates for primary or grammar school 
students range from $1 to $3 per month; for 
high school students from $2 to $7.50 per month. 
As a rule payment is exacted in advance. 

VACATION SCHOOLS.— The so-called va- 
cation schools conducted in the larger cities 
during the summer months provide for the 
children in these communities much-needed, 
pleasant and profitable emplojrment. They keep 
the children away from the hot, crowded streets 
and prevent idleness and its attendant evils. 
The studies taken up in these schools are 
mainly: manual training in its most practical 
phases, nature study, including gardening, 
drawing and painting, physical exercises (both 
gymnastic and play), music, kindergarten 
work, etc. Excursions into the country to pub- 
lic parks, etc., are a feature. In some localities 
common branches are taught as an aid to chil- 
dren who failed of promotion. 

VANDALISM. — An educator says: "No 
school is worthy of the name it bears unless 
the children therein come to have a sense of 
their personal, community and national respon- 
sibility. This knowledge will show them that 
every violation of rules and laws, every instance 
of malicious destruction of property, every man- 
ifestation of vandalism, all exhibitions of im- 
pudence and indolence, ' all forms of disrespect 



138 VACCINATION 

for persons, places, positions, sacred things, help 
to make possible the birth of an anarchist and 
the act of an assassin." 

VACCINATION.— The rule demanding pu- 
pils to be vaccinated is almost universal 
throughout the United States. The opposition 
to the rule is quite strong in a number of 
localities and has even been carried into the 
courts. The state supreme court decisions, 
with one exception, however, uphold the school 
and health authorities in making vaccination a 
condition for admission to the schools. (See 
Medical Inspection.) 

WASH ROOMS.— A wash bowl, soap and 
towels are properly a part of the equipment of 
every school. These are usually placed in an 
ante-room of the toilets. In large schools a 
regular wash room is provided. 

WAYWARD CHILDREN.— Are those who 
are habitually associating with vicious or im- 
moral persons or who are growing up in circum- 
stances tending to cause them to lead an im- 
moral or vicious life. Such children are usually 
treated like delinquents and are cared for in 
special institutions. 



INDEX 



Absence, of Pupils, 90; Excuses for, 92-93; of 
Teachers and Principals, 109; Teachers' 
Leave of, 122. 

ADMINISTRATION, 7-15; State, 7-10; National, 
7; City, 11-12; Tendencies in, 12-13; District, 
13; Town, 14; County, 15. 

Admiission, Pupils, Ag^e of, 90. 

ADVERTISEMENTS, 15 . 

Agencies, Teachers', 113. 

AGENTS, 16; Bookmen, 38. 

AGRICULTURE, 16. 

Amusements, Teachers', 114. 

APPARATUS, Definition, 17; Condition, 17; In- 
ventory, 17; Needs, 17; How Ordered, 18. 

Appointment, of Janitors, 73; of Teachers, 114; of 
Superintendents, 107; Health as a requisite 
for, 121. 

ARBOR DAY, 18, 69. 

ART EDUCATION, 18-19; Aims of, 19. 

Associations, School Board, 23. 

ATHLETICS, 19-20; Pules, 20. 

Authority, of School Boards, 24; of Janitors, 75; 
of Superintendents, 107-109; of Teachers, 
116. 

BackTvard Children, 20; as Defectives, 50. 

BATHS, 21; see Hygiene, 70. 

BIBLE READINGS, 21-23; Literary, 22; Legal, 

22. y , 

Bi-Partisan School Boards, 25. ' 

Blind Children, 51. 

BOARDS OF EDUCATION, 23-27; Associations, 
23-24; Authority, 24; Bi-partisan, 25; Char- 
acter, 25; Committees, 26; Compensation, 27; 
Deadlocks, 28; Democracy, 28; Discipline, 28; 
Duties, 29; Executive Sessions, 29; Funda- 
mentals, 29; Non-Partisan, 30; Order of Busi- 
ness, 30; Partisan, 31; Presidents, 31; Quali- 
fications, 32; Scandals, 34; Secretary, 34; Se- 
lection, 13, 35; Tenure, 35; Visiting, 36; Wom- 
en on, 36; State Boards, 8; Tendencies, 12- 
13; Powers and Functions, 11; Township 
Boards, 14. 

BOOK COVERS, 37. 

BOOKMEN, 38-39; Mission, 38; Relation to Offi- 
cials, 38; as Agents, 16. 

BUDGET, 39. 

CENSUS, 42; Plan for Distributing- School Funds, 
112. 



140 , INDEX 

centralizatiojV of rural, schools, 40- 

42; Transportation of Pupils, 133. 
Certificates, Teachers', 116-117. 
City, School Administration, 11; Tendencies in, 

12-13. 
CITY COUNCILS, 42-43. 
City, School Taxation, 112; 
CLASS ROOMS, 43-44; Disinfection of, 52. 
CLOSING SCHOOLS, 44-45; Storm Signals for, 

106. 
CO-EDUCATION, 45. 
Cominencemeiit Exercises, 59-62. 
Compensation, of School Boards, 27. 
Committees, of School Boards, 26. 
COMPULSORY EDUCATION, 46; Enforcement of 

Laws, 109; Truancy, 184; Truant Officers, 135. 
Consumption, in Pupils, 91; in Teachers, 122. 
CONTAGIOUS DISEASES, 46; Medical Inspection 

for, 79. 
Contracts, Teachers', 117-119. 
CONTRIBUTIONS, 46; Subscriptions. 106. 
CONVENTIONS, 46; of School Boards, 23. 
CORPORAL PUNISHMENT, 48; Exemption from, 

48; Freak Punishment, 48; How Applied, 49; 

Tendenc3^ 48. 
County Administration, 15. 
COURSE OF STUDY, 49; State, 8-9. 
CURFEAV LAWS, 50. 
Deadlocks, in School Boards, 28. 
Deaf Children, 51. 
Debts, of School Employes, 119. 
DEFECTIVES, 50-51; Backward Children, 20. 
DELINaUENTS, 51; Wayward Children, 138. 
Democracy, in the Schools, 28; Equality, 54. 
Deportment, of Pupils, 92. 
Detention, of Pupils after Class, 92. 
Discipline, School Boards and, 28; of Pupils, 92; 

Teachers and, 119. 
DISINFECTION OF SCHOOLS, 52. 
Dismissal, of Janitors, 13; of Teachers, 119-121; 

Married Teachers, 122-123. 
Distribution, of School Funds, 112. 
District, School Administration, 13. 
DRINKING FOUNTAINS, 52-53. 
Duties, of Boards of Education, 29; of State 

Boards. 8; of Janitors, 74; of Superintend- 
ents, 107-108. 
Education, Fads in, 57. 
.Eflucational Centers, 56. 
Eligibility, of Teachers, 121. 
ENTERTAINMENTS, 53. 
EQUALITY, 53-54; Democracy, 28. 
ETHICAL COURSE, 54-56; Moral Training-, 81. 
EVENING SCHOOLS, 56-57. 



INDEX 141 

Bxaniinations, of Pupils, 95; of Teachers, 121. 

Excuses, of Pupils. 92. 

Expulsion, of Pupils, 93. 

FADS IN EDUCATION, 57. 

Feeble-Minded Children, 51; Backward Children, 
20. 

Financial Reports, 99-103. 

FIRE DRILLS, 57-58. 

"Fixed Sum" Plan, of Distributing- School Funds, 
112. 

FOREIGN LANGUAGES, 58-59. 

Forms, of Motions, 83. 

Fundamentals, of School Organization, 29. 

Furnace Heating;, 62. 

GARDENS, 59. 

Gilbert, C. B., Quotation from, 45. 

GRADUATION, 59-62. 

Gymnastics, 20. 

Health of Teachers, 121. 

HEATING AND VENTILATION. 62-67; Methods 
of, 62; Furnace, 62; Steam, 63; Natural Ven- 
tilation, 64; Mechanical Ventilation, 65; Air 
Required for Ventilation, 65; Temperature 
Regulation, 65-67. 

Hi^h Schools, Evening, 56; Lunch Counters in, 
76; Manual Training in, 78; Military Drill in, 
80; Secret Societies in, 104. 

HOLIDAYS, 67-70; Arbor Day, 18. 

Home Study, Pupils, 93. 

HYGIENE AND SANITATION, 70-72; Disinfec- 
tion of Schools, 52; School Baths, 21; Medi- 
cal Inspection, 79-80; Janitors, 73-75; Con- 
sumptives. 91; Sweeping of Schools, 110; 
Toilet Rooms, 132. 

Industrial Evening Schools, 56. 

INSTITUTES FOR TEACHERS, 72. 

Inventory, of School Apparatus, 17. 

JANITORS, Service. 73-75; Appointment and Dis- 
missal, 73; Duties. 74; Powers, 75. 

KINDERGARTENS, 76. 

Language Study, Foreign, 58. 

LIBRARIES, School, 76. 

Licenses, Teachers, 116-117. 

Lighting, of Classrooms, 71. 

Local Taxation, School, 111. 

LUNCH COUNTERS, 76-77. 

MANUAL TRAINING, 77-78. 

MEDICAL INSPECTION, 79-80; Consumptives, 

91; Vaccination, 138. 
Meetings, Order of Business, 30; of Teachers, 

124. 
3IILITARY DRILL, 80-81. 



142 INDEX 

Milne, W. J., Quotation from, 128. 
MORAL TRAINING, 81; Ethical, 54-56. 
Motions, Parliamentary, 84; Forms, 83; How Dis- 
posed of, 85. 
NARCOTICS, Study of Effects of, 81. 

National Asssociation of Secondary Schools, Quo- 
tation from Report of, 104-105. 
National Conference on Truancy, Quotation from 
Report of, 135. 

National Education Association, Conventions, 47; 
Quotation from Report of, 99. 

NEPOTISM, 81-82. 

Non-Partisan School Boards, 30. 

Non-Residents, Pupils, 94; Teachers, 124; Tuition 
Paid by, 136. 

NOR3IAL SCHOOLS, 82. 

Order of Business, at School Board Meeting's, 30. 

Outside Occupations, Of Teachers and Principals, 
124. 

PARFNTS 82-8'^ 

PARLIAMENTARY RULES, 83-85; Forms, 83; 
Priority of Questions, 83; Motions, 84-85. 

Partisan School Boards, 31. 

PENSIONS FOR TEACHERS, 85-87; Arg-uments 
for, 86. 

Personal Appearance, of Teachers, 125. 

PHYSICAL CULTURE, 87-88; Athletics, 19-20. 

PLAYGROUNDS, 88. 

Politics, 88; Teachers in, 125. 

Presidents, School Board, 31-32. 

PRESS, THE PUBLIC, 89-90; Reporters, 103. 

PRINCIPALS, 88-89; and Superintendent, 109. 

Private Instruction, by Teachers, 126. 

Professional Training, 126. 

Promotions, of Pupils, 95. 

PUPILS, 90-92; Medical Inspection of, 79; Mili- 
tary Drill, 81; Absentees, 90; Admission, 90; 
Consumptives, 91; Deportment, 92; Detention, 
92; Discipline, 92; Excuses, 92; Expulsion, 
93; Home Study, 93; Non-Residents, 94; Pro- 
motions, 95; Reports, 96; Suspension of, 
97; Self-Government, 97-99; Saving's Banks, 
104; Secret Societies of, 105; Authority of 
Teachers over, 116; Transportation of, 133; 
Tuition, 136; Vandalism, 137; Vaccination of, 
138 * 

QUALIFICATIONS, Of School Board Members. 
32-33; of Principals. 88; of Superintendents, 
106; of Teachers. 121. 

Rating, of Teachers, 126. 

RECESS, 99. 

REPORTERS, 103-104. 



INDEX 143 

REPORTS, 99-103; of Pupils Work, 96; by Su- 
perintendents, 108. 

Resig-nations, of Teachers, 127. 

Rural Schools, Centralization of, 40-42; Trans- 
portation of Pupils, 133. 

SANITATION, 70-72; see Hygiene and Sanitation. 

SAVINGS BANKS, School, 104. 

Scandals, School, 34. 

School Administration — see Administration. 

School Buildings, Disinfection of, 52; Class- 
rooms in, 43; Inspection by Superintendent. 
109. 

School Boards, see Boards of Education. 

School 3Ioneys, State Apportionment of, 8. 

School Libraries, 76. 

SECRET SOCIETIES, in High Schools, 104-105; 
Legal Aspects, 105. 

Secretary, of School Board, 34. 

Selection of School Boards, 35; of Superintend- 
ents, 107; of Teachers, 114-116. 

SESSIONS, School, 105. 

Self-Government, Pupils, 97-99. 

State Normal Schools, 82. 

State School Administration, 7. 

State Taxation for Schools, 111. 

Statistics, 99-103. 

Steam Heating, 63. 

Storm Sig^nals, 106. 

Subscriptions, 106; contributions, 46. 

Substitutes, Teachers, 12 7. 

SUPERINTENDENTS, 106-110; Qualifications, 106; 
Selection, 107; Duties, 107-109; Term, 110. 

Supervision, by the Principals, 89; by Superin- 
tendent, 107-109. 

Suspension, of Pupils, 97. 

SW^EEPING, School, 110. 

TAXATION, 111-113; State, 111; Local, 111; Dis- 
tribution, 112; City, 112-113. 

TEACHERS, 113-128; Institutes, 72; Nepotism, 
81; and Parents, 82; Pensions, 85-87; and Su- 
perintendent, 109; Agencies, 113; Amuse- 
ments, 114; Appointment, 115; Authority, 116; 
Certificates, 116; Contracts, 117; Debts, 119; 
Discipline, 119; Dismissals, 119-121; Eligibil- 
ity, 121; Examinations, 121; Health, 121; 
Leave of Absence, 122; Married, 122-124; 
Meetings, 124; Non-Residents, 124; Outside 
Occupations, 125; Personal Appearance, 125; 
in Politics, 125; Private Instruction, 126; 
Professional Training, 126; Rating, 126; Res- 
ignations, 127; Substitutes, 127; Testimonials, 
127; Visiting, 128. 



144 INDEX 

TELEPHONES, 128. 
Temperature Reg^ulation, 65-67. 

Term of Office, of Superintendents, 110; of 

School Boards, 85. 
Testimonials, of Teachers. 127. 
TEXT-BOOKS, 129-13'2; State Approval, 8; the 

Superintendent and, 109; Purposes, 129; 

Adoption, 130; Free, 130-132; Supplementary, 

132. 
TOIILET ROOMS, 132-133; Wash Rooms, 138. 
Township Administration, 14. 
TRADE SCHOOLS, 11; Industrial Evening 

Schools, 56. 
TRANSPORTATION, of Pupils, 133. 
TRUANCY, 134-136; Compulsory Education, 46; 

Superintendents and, 109; Census for, 42. 
Truant Officer, 136. 

46; Census for, 42; and Superintendent, 109. 
TUITION, 136-137; of Non-residents, 94. 
VACATION SCHOOLS, 137. 
VACCINATION, 138. 
VANDALISM, 137. 
VENTILATION, 62-67; Furnace, 63; Natural, 64; 

Mechanical, 65; Amount of Air Required, 65; 

Sanitary Requirements. 71. 
Visiting Seliools, by School Boards, 36; by Super' 

intendents, 108; by Teachers, 128, 
AVASH ROOMS, 138. 

AVAYWARD CHILDREN, 138; Delinquents, 51. 
Wilkinson, J. N., Quotation from, 128. 
Women on School Boards, 36. 



DEC 5 H 



